Bohomolets National Medical University

І.V. Vasilieva
А.Yu. Vermenko

Philosophy and General Philosophy of Medicine:

Kyiv
AUS Medicine Publishing
2019

UDC 1:(072)
LBC 87
Ф 69
В 34
В 74

Recommended by the Academic Council of Bogomolets National Medical University (minutes No. 11, 17 May 2018) 

Reviewers:
I.B. Ostaschyk, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor, National Pedagogical Dragomanov University 
O.Yu. Pavlova, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor, Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
S.V. Storozhuk, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor, National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine

Philosophy and General Philosophy of Medicine: textbook. / I.V. Vasylieva, А.Yu. Vermenko; edited by I.V. Vasylieva, А.Yu. Vermenko – Kyiv: AUS Medicine Publishing, 2019. –  240 p. ISBN  978-617-505-717-9

The textbook "Philosophy and General Philosophy of Medicine" contains the texts regarding the main subfields of philosophy included to the program of the University course of this academic discipline. The textbook is committed to provide information on the issues of the history of philosophy, ontology, philosophical anthropology, gnoseology, methodology, social philosophy and philosophy of medicine. The guidelines for seminars, the questions for self-control and a guide to philosophical terms are included in the textbook.
The textbook is designed to meet the academic, professional needs of the medical students of higher education establishments. 

УДК 1:(072)
ББК 87
©НМУ
©Васильєва І.В., 2018
©Верменко А.Ю., 2018

INTRODUCTION

The textbook "Fundamentals of Philosophy and General Philosophy of Medicine" provides the information concerning the main subfields of philosophy included to the program of the University course of this academic discipline. The issues on the history of philosophy, ontology, philosophical anthropology, gnoseology, methodology, social philosophy and philosophy of medicine are presented and discussed in the textbook. 
The course is based on the knowledge gained from the "History of Ukraine", "History of Ukrainian and Foreign Cultures", "Religious Studies", "Logics", "History of Medicine", "Bioethics". Knowledge and skills acquired while studying these courses can be applied in the process of Philosophy mastering. 
The objective of the course is to shape the students' knowledge of all the main philosophical concepts, to form the plurality and alternative ways of philosophical perception and thinking and to provide the theoretical, axiological, methodological basis for the systematic scientific world outlook as important element of world outlook of medical professionals.
The course focuses on the main notions and aims of philosophy, the philosophical aspects of methodology, ontology and gnoseology, as well as the current problems of society development. Special attention is paid to the history of philosophy. The separate chapter is devoted to philosophy of medicine, since from ancient Greece to the modern era philosophy has been at the basis of medicine. Philosophy provides the theoretical, analytical, methodological tools for the analysis of concepts in medicine, such as disease, health and care. The art of medicine involves practical reasoning, that is, critical thinking, intuition and sound judgment, which are in the field of philosophical issues. Moreover, the medical practice raises the questions which are central to philosophy. The general concepts and principles of philosophy of medicine are highlighted in the textbook.
Students are supposed to get explicit information about the general content of the course: the main notions and definitions of the fundamental philosophical categories, the facts from the history of philosophy and those regarding the contemporary problems of the modern society development. At the end of the course students will be able to use the acquired philosophical knowledge for the real social life problems analysis and formation of personal position about the most topical problems of the modern society development.
The book contains 12 chapters: Human World Outlook and General Problems of Philosophy, Ancient World Philosophy, Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy, European Philosophy of the XVII−XIX centuries, Modern Philosophy, Philosophy of Ukraine, Ontology, Philosophical Anthropology and Problems of Human Conscience, Gnoseology, Philosophical Aspects of Methodology, Social Philosophy and Philosophy of Medicine. The list of recommended literature, the guidelines for seminars and questions for students' self-control are also included. A guide to philosophical terms will help readers in mastering the main notions and concepts of Philosophy.
The authors convey sincere gratitude to the reviewers for their valuable remarks and useful suggestions.
The authors wish readers every success in mastering philosophy.

Part 1. Human World Outlook and General Problems of Philosophy
The representatives of all the regional cultures and social groups inevitably had to solve the basic world outlook questions and problems: "What are the main laws of Universe we live in and how should we use them to predict the future events and prepare to them?", "What are the origins, essence and destination of human being?", "What is the proper type of interaction between an individual human being and society and between human and world?" and so on. For the last two and half thousand years philosophy was a main tool to obtain the answers to such questions and this makes the study of philosophy an important and useful part of students training.
Therefore, understanding of the surrounding world and the place of an individual human being in it is a fundamental necessity for both an individual and the society, which grants them ability for self-definition and self-determination. There are objective and subjective reasons for that. An individual and society have the objective existence in the material world as complex system with its own laws, interrelations and rules of development, and so the essence of self-definition is in understanding the world as an integral system with its own laws of functioning and development, as well as in recognizing unbreakable ties to this system existing both for an individual and personality. The subjective factor is equally important for self-definition as a unique ability of a human being to evaluate his or her life, and results of his or her actions. It owes its existence to the presence of consciousness, and constant need for comprehension of the universe and abilities of an individual human being. Philosophy and other forms of world outlook in their interaction are fundamentally important for any human culture as a system of basic humanistic values, rules and patterns of human behavior.
World outlook is the most ancient product of human spirituality. It is a universal form of reflection, cognition and evaluation of the Universe, basic for the purpose of both self-definition and external world orientation. The foundation of the world outlook is knowledge (of the facts of individual life, as well as social religious, philosophical, ethical and scientific knowledge) that shapes the specific character of the world outlook. Several types of historical world outlooks can be identified through the history of humanity.
Mythological world outlook is rooted in mythology as the earliest form of human world understanding and self-understanding. It reflects a belief that the universe has been created by imaginary beings (gods), and exists due to the presence of spontaneous collectivism, that mirrored life conditions in the most primitive pre-historical society and during the earliest periods of civilization development. Myths of Ancient India, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Scandinavia and other countries are widely known. Notably, mythology functioned as a regulatory code for all the aspects and components of the life of the society and person. The specific nature of any mythology is defined by the combination of elements of symbolism and generalization, collectivism and anthropomorphism, prompted further development of other forms of world outlook.
Religious world outlook originated as a subsequent historical form, and is based on the knowledge of laws of correlation of natural and supernatural forces, dependency of a human being on the latter, and a strong belief in supernatural realm and God or multiple gods as creators and supervisors of both natural and supernatural world. Religion as a world outlook has always been functioning partially in the same way as mythological world outlook being a regulatory force in the sphere of human relations, defining the boundaries of the permissible and impermissible. But on other hand, the main world religions proposed concept of individual and not personal nature of sin, responsibility and salvation, so they participated in transition from collectivist to individualist general orientation of world outlook. Finally, unlike the mythology, the Jewish, Christian and Muslim religious world outlook originated quite the strict differentiation between spiritual, social and natural components of both universe and human essence with the unquestionable primacy of spiritual as representation of divine essence.
Theoretical (philosophical and scientific) world outlook is the third historical form of the world outlook. It has originated at a late stage of civilization development, and is based on a gained historical experience of humankind in such areas as discoveries of objective laws and cause-result chains of events of the material world, development of cognitive abilities and methodological schemes, strict differentiation of lifestyles and professional activity types with their specific experience, wide international exchange of knowledge and so on. The essence of the scientific world outlook is a combination of systematic theoretical rationalist understanding, critical innovative approach, and checking by results of practical activity for all the knowledge of both material world and human individual in their interaction. The norms and ideals of human behavior are thought to be based not on the divine will and interference but on the objective laws of the world.
There exist a lot of definitions of world outlook. In the most general form, world outlook is a specific system of individual and social spiritual values that allows creating a generalized reflection of the correlation between an individual and the world (with natural and the social components) for the purpose of self-definition and practical orientation. World outlook is a system of generalized perception of reality (knowledge, beliefs and ideals), which reflects, discloses and shapes a certain practical and theoretical attitude of an individual human being towards the world. It is a mode of perception, cognition and evaluation of the surrounding reality with an individual human being and different by nature social groups as a specific historical object of cognition and practical application of this knowledge.
World outlook structure and functions. There are several main elements of the world outlook. In the first place, it is world outlook knowledge. First is theoretical knowledge about the essence of the correlation between an individual human being and the world. Second are world outlook beliefs (internal socio-psychological elements of spirituality, responsible for acceptance or denial of the world outlook knowledge). Third are world outlook principles, allowing world outlook knowledge and beliefs to function and be applied in practical activity, which are basic for the presence of a world outlook judgment. It is the combination of the two above named elements, functioning simultaneously, that creates a holistic system of subject's spiritual world. Consequently, world outlook performs two interrelated functions: human cognition orientation (defined by world outlook knowledge and judgment), and practical activity orientation (based on world outlook beliefs and principles as boundaries for actions). Not only reasoning, but also emotions and other psychological mechanisms participate in the functioning of the world outlook.
Judging from the point of view of the bearer and the subject of world outlook, one can identify personal world outlook (of an individual human being), social group world outlook (demographical or professional groups of people, such as medical practitioners,), then world outlook of a nation and society as a whole. Individual and social world outlook content, meaning and forms of functioning are surely under constant historical changes. It reflects achieved results of the societal progress, evolution of culture, science and technology as well as the up-to-date major problems the humankind is facing (e.g. global ecological problems, widespread of terrorism and so on).
World outlook and philosophy. Generalization as a specific element of a myth triggered the appearance of a new cultural phenomenon — philosophy. There are many versions of the origins of philosophy. One of them is based in the connection between mythology and philosophy. But if in mythology, world outlook problems were formed randomly, the origin of philosophy was accompanied by contemplation about these problems based on the cognition of objective laws, governing human behavior and the universe.
Therefore, we can conclude that philosophy has originated as a result of the resolution of contradictions between a myth and first elements of empiric (based on trial and error) knowledge of natural phenomena, society and an individual. Philosophy transliterates the language of a myth into the language of notions. Their abstract nature and diversity of their meanings characterize the language of philosophy. Philosophy itself is sometimes defined as a way of thinking rooted in the world outlook.
Philosophy subject and functions. Philosophy, much as the world outlook itself, is a multifaceted complex phenomenon, and it is constantly evolving. In Ancient Greece, philosophy was defined, notably, as the love for wisdom not wisdom itself. For the last centuries, many authors tried to equal philosophy to most general conclusions of science, or evaluate it as a special branch of science. In general, the subject of modern philosophy is a constant search for the essential elements of human existence, contemplation over the acquired knowledge and those actions of an individual human being, that lead to the acquisition of this knowledge. Philosophy is a specific form of social consciousness; it generalizes experience acquired through the realization of a human spirit, as reflected in a particular theoretical hierarchy of human values. The main problem of philosophy is a relation of an individual human being to the Universe, which forms a system of human values and undertakes a spiritual analysis of human individual behavior and social activities.
As a specific spiritual formation, philosophy performs a number of functions. Here are some of the most fundamental ones. World outlook function of philosophy is known for its ability to take part in the formation of an individual’s world outlook, providing it with theoretical basis. Therefore, philosophy is a theoretical foundation of world outlook. Cognitive function of philosophy is recognized for the number of problems identified within the boundaries of its subject. Among them there are problems dealing with human spirituality, search for the meaning of life, love, cultural aspects of religion and its function, of science and medicine. Methodical function of philosophy manifests itself in the search for efficient forms and methods of cognition. Philosophy's specific nature is, therefore, defined by its consideration of the most fundamental aspects of spiritual culture of the humankind and its general principles, responsible for providing collective human activity with purpose and meaning.
Philosophy: historical forms and schools of thought. Philosophy as a form of human knowledge has a history going back for more than three thousand years. It has been evolving in conjunction with socio-cultural factors of the societal progress, and has always functioned as a spiritual quintessence of a given historical period. Progressive development of philosophy has been evolving in conjunction with various stages of the evolution of the world culture and public mode of production. The following are the known historic types of philosophy: various historical stages of the evolution of philosophy in various countries and on various continents; various approaches in the evolution of philosophy: materialism, dualism, dialectics, metaphysics and methodology of scientific cognition; various schools of philosophic thought: Baden and Frankfurt school of thought in Europe, Kiev school of thought in Ukraine.
World philosophy, therefore, can be viewed as a diverse and complex cultural phenomenon. It is characterized by an abundance of thought, concepts and approaches that allow resolution of the world outlook problems, and by a contradictory nature of the points of view on their origins. This is what has contributed to the pluralistic nature of philosophy. Its essence is as follows.
Firstly, it means equal coexistence of various schools of thought and approaches to problems of philosophy, represented by the multitude of existing schools of philosophy, trends and tendencies.
Secondly, it is reflected in the contradictory, problematic nature of evolution and application of philosophical knowledge, often taking the form of a dialogue. One of the manifestations of pluralism in philosophy is the existence of two opposite approaches to the study of the universe and the individual human being: materialistic and idealistic.
Materialism studies the objective world, its phenomena and processes, and teaches that material substance prevails over spiritual. Materialism has a lot of historic forms: naive materialism of the ancient philosophy, metaphysical and mechanical materialism of XVII-XVIII centuries, dialectic materialism of XIX century and its modern advanced forms.
Idealism focuses its studies on human spirit and consciousness, and teaches that spiritual prevails over material substance. There are two different types of idealism: objective idealism, which objectifies and opposes general ideal rules and laws of world existence to individual human consciousness (Plato, Hegel) and subjective idealism, which attributes completely independent functioning to human consciousness, it asserts the right of an individual to create a world in accordance with one’s wishes (Berkley, Nietzsche). These trends are monistic (derived from the word "mono" - one), as they take one, either materialistic or spiritual substance of world as an individual foundation of it. Another school of thought is dualism, which aims at resolving the contradiction between mind and matter. It views material and spiritual components of the Universe as independent and equally important (R. Descartes and E. Kant).
All these trends in philosophy have the right to exist, as they reflect the different aspects of the process of cognition of interrelated and relatively independent material and spiritual worlds. Their opposition acquires a meaningful context only if a person is striving to define the relationship between them. In fact, they cannot be separated from each another. But when studied separately, the possibility of one-sided approach and absolutization of either one poses as a real threat. This is where the so-called main philosophical issue appears: what comes first – material or spiritual. Philosophy is designated to study the correlation between them. However, contemporary thought gives a different definition of the main issue in philosophy. It can be defined as an approach to the resolution of the main world outlook problem: interrelation of an individual human being and the surrounding world in its most relevant aspects: ethical, axiological, ontological.
The problem of method in philosophy. Another example of pluralism in philosophy is an issue of the method of cognition, which reflects one of the main philosophical problems. It is understood that the word "method" (from Greek – way of research) denotes the most generalized principle (or principles) of approach to the cognition of the Universe, and its comprehension. The surrounding objective world is diverse in its qualities, characteristics, conditions, processes. It is comprised of both rapidly evolving and relatively stable phenomena. In view of the above, there emerged two relatively opposed philosophical positions. One focuses on the evolving and ever-changing nature of the existing world; the other stresses its stability and static character. The first position is known as dialectical. It emphasizes the evolving and ever-changing nature of the material world. The second has acquired the name of metaphysics, as it has always stressed the stability of world phenomena, recognizing only the simplest mechanical movement in the space.
Dialectics as a teaching on the evolving and ever-changing nature of the objective and subjective worlds has acquired the status of a philosophical method of cognition. Three historical forms of dialectical teaching are identified as follows: a spontaneous dialectics of ancient philosophy, idealistic dialectics (especially popular in XVII-XVII centuries), and materialistic dialectics (XIX - XX centuries). Metaphysics as a method of cognition has a lot in common with certain characteristics of the mechanical process itself, especially its initial stage of studying objects or processes apart from their historical context and interrelation with other objects and processes. Consequently, the opposition of metaphysics and dialectics is a relative one, since together they reflect the multitude of phenomena and processes of the objective world, its static nature and its constant evolution.
In view of the above, philosophy is a systematic and rational consideration of general foundations for an individual’s behavior and actions. It generalizes the experience of the historical evolution of human spirituality. It is a system of most general knowledge about the world. It teaches an individual to comprehend his or her place, role and perspectives in the natural and social world. The purpose of philosophical studies lies not in learning philosophy, but in mastering the process of philosophizing in the best sense of the word. Yet, it is impossible to master the process of philosophizing without acquiring basic knowledge of philosophy – a theoretical experience of the entire humankind. This requirement is especially important for a medical practitioner. Hippocrates stated in this regard, "A doctor who is also a philosopher is equal to God".
Control questions and tasks
1. World outlook historical types.
2. World outlook structure and functions.
3. Philosophy structure and functions.
4. Philosophy interaction with personal and social world outlook.
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
1. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy / B. Russell. – New York : Simon and Schuster, 1961. – 837 p.
2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew. – New York : St. Martin’s Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. N.V. Popov, A.A. Zakordonets. Philosophy. Scholarly applicable methods for international students / A.A. Zakordonets, N.V. Popov. Kyiv: Bogomolets National Medical University, 2004. — 72 p.
5. Vermenko A. Yu. Philosophy: [textbook] / A. Yu. Vermenko. – Nizhin : PE Lisenko N.M., 2016.  – 150 p.

Part 2. Ancient World Philosophy
Ancient Indian Philosophy Schools
Ancient India had two philosophical streams of thought: the Vedic Astika orthodox or traditional schools (connected with Hinduism) and the Nastika untraditional or heteredox schools of thought represented by Charvaka, Jainism and Buddhism. Plurality and variety of philosophical trends, existed side by side for many thousands of years and influenced each other, were typical for Ancient Indian philosophy. Idealistic schools were most common and had close relations with religion inherited by modern Indian philosophy. Indian philosophy is also closely connected with medicine and “Ayurveda” book devoted to medical problems remains valuable up to our times. Indian intellectual traditions were codified later during the medieval period into a standard list of six Vedic orthodox systems: Nyaya, the school of logic; Vaisheshika, the atomist school; Samkhya, the school of enumeration; Yoga, or school of Patanjali (which assumes the metaphysics of Samkhya); Purva Mimamsa (or simply Mimamsa), the tradition of Vedic exegesis, and Advaita.
Vedanta is the most influential school of all, and many philosophers, both Indian and Western, have been influenced by it. The term was proposed by Adi Sankara, a renowned Hindu philosopher. According to this school, Brahman (spirituality) is the only reality, and the world, as it appears, is illusory. As Brahman is the sole reality, it cannot possess any specific attributes. An illusionary power of Brahman called Maya causes the world to arise. Ignorance to this reality is the cause of all suffering in the world and only upon true knowledge of Brahman liberation can be attained. When a person tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to the influence of Maya, Brahman appears as God (Ishvara), separate from the world and from the individual. In fact, there is no difference between the individual soul Atman (jivatman) and Brahman. Liberation lies in knowing the reality of this non-difference (a-dvaita). Thus, the path to liberation is only through knowledge (Jnana).
Nyaya and Vaisheshika school formed the grounds for analytical philosophy. It considered logical research and criticism to be the method of perception. Therefore, such philosophical notions as space, time, matter, consciousness, and soul are taken from here, and their meaning is studied for gaining experience, since it is the criterion of knowledge.
Yoga is practical philosophy, the founder of which was Patanjali. Yoga means concentration (meditation), expressing the way or the method of practical combination of man with God. In this teaching main attention is paid to the personal soul study and psychological education on the basis of meditation positions. The most important element of the Yoga system is the description of rules for psychologically oriented training. Its stages are: self-possession, possession of breathing at determined body postures, isolation of feelings from external influence, thought concentration, meditation and release from the body. Such approach is often thought to be important for medical practice (psychotherapy, psycho hygiene, psychopharmacology etc).
The three main heterodox (untraditional) schools of Indian philosophy do not base their beliefs on Vedic authority: Buddhism, Jainism, Carvaka.
Buddhism is a worldwide religion now, but it started its existence as a philosophical school. It was founded around the fifth century B.C. by Gautama Buddha. Buddhism was spread throughout the Indian subcontinent and in neighboring countries (such as Sri Lanka) within the few centuries following the Buddha's death. It spread further into Asia over the next two millennia. It is now one of the largest religions in the world. It exists in a wide variety of controversial forms.
Rebirth and Karma. Rebirth has no discernible beginning, and takes place in a variety of types of life, later formally classified as the Five or Six Realms of existence: devas (gods and semi-gods), asuras (demons, anti gods, titans), humans and animals, ghosts (many sources restrict this to a particular type, hungry ghosts), hell-dwellers. Theravada enumerates five realms, East Asian Buddhism includes six, while both schemes are in use in the Tibetan tradition. The karma of good and bad deeds produces "rewards" and "punishments" either in this life or in a subsequent one. These may be either rebirths themselves or events of life. Rebirth in human and higher realms result from good karma, rebirth in lower ones originates from bad karma. The lower levels of good deeds belong to the subject of power or conduct. Rebirth among the higher levels of gods can be attained only by the practice of forms of meditation classified as samatha or samadhi. Those with sufficient merit can decide their own rebirth to some extent. The early teaching and the traditional understanding in the Theravada is that they are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. However, in modern Sri Lanka they are taught to children in Sunday schools.
According to the scriptures, the Buddha taught the "Four Noble Truths". The first truth declares that human being’s existence is suffering (sorrow). The second truth states that the reason of sufferings is desire (thirst), which leads man to new birth. The third truth advocates that overcoming the reason of sufferings means refusal, elimination of thirst. And the fourth truth points to the way of such elimination (refusal). There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering - the Noble Eightfold Path, which consists of correct judgment, correct decision, correct speech, correct way of life, correct striving, correct attention and correct concentration. Such way assumes conscious refusal from life and its enjoyments, transition to self-restriction, self-regulation and even self-flagellation. In other words, human being’s sense of life is determined as the way of self-perfection up to the very death. According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were among the topics of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment to the five ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities. The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by the Buddha not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at that time. Most ordinary Buddhists practice little or no meditation in the narrower sense of purely mental exercises, but practice devotional and other forms of chanting as meditation instead.
Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an independent religion, one of the oldest religions in the world, originated in Ancient India. The Jains follow the teachings of the 24 Jinas (spiritual conquerors) who are also known as Tirthankaras. The 24th of them was Lord Mahavira who lived in 6th century BC. Jains are a small but influential religious minority with at least 4.2 million practitioners in modern India and more in growing immigrant communities in the United States, Western Europe, Africa, Far East and elsewhere. Jains continue to sustain the ancient Shraman or ascetic tradition and are not a part of the Vedic Religion (Hinduism). The most important problem of Jainism is the problem of a human being’s personality. Its starting positions are as follows: 1) personality has duality nature (material and spiritual); 2) its connection with the Karma results in the rise of an individual; 3) there is struggle between good and evil Karma within each individual; 4) personality is able to get rid of evil Karma and then of Samsara (rebirth). This means that a human being with the help of his spirituality is able to control and manage his body. Jainism ethics demands correct understanding based on “three values”: correct belief, correct perception and correct life. Correct life was understood as ascetic (self-restriction) life style and personal rescue. The secondary ethical principles are non-infliction of harm to animals, denial of wealth and sexual relations.
Charvaka (from Sanskrit carvaka) is a system of Indian philosophy that assumed various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference. It is also known as Lokayata (Sanskrit lokyata). It is named after its founder, Charvaka, author of the Barhaspatya-sutras. In overviews of Indian Philosophy, Charvaka is classified as a "heterodox" (nastika) system, the same classification as is given to Buddhism and Jainism. It is characterized as a materialistic and atheistic school of thought. Charvaka was the first school which opposed the Vedas. It stated existence of only the material world. There are four elements in its basis: earth, water, air, and fire. The soul is connected with body. Three sources of perception were recognized in the perception theory: direct apprehension, logical conclusion and evidence. Rejection of the soul as separate from the body led the Charvakas to confine their thinking to this world only. This does not mean that they denied the cause-effect relationship, but restricted it to mortal life and natural world. The Charvakas denounced the caste system, calling it artificial (as organs of all the human bodies are the same), unreal and hence unacceptable. The Charvaka scholars carried on researches into every branch of knowledge and developed it elaborately. It is possible that they also observed and kept records of the historical astronomical events, which the Chinese, the Incas and Mayans and all other ancient civilizations did, as per records left to posterity in the form of astrological writings (Chinese) and cave paintings (Incas and Mayans). However, the Indian records have not yet come to light, perhaps due to the predominance of oral tradition in India, liable to easy distortion. More probably, Charvaka’s works and records did not survive till modern time because they have been destroyed by the Charvakas' opponents.
Philosophical Ideas in Ancient China
There were 6 main schools of philosophy in Ancient China: Kun Tzu (Confucian) school, mohism or moism (Mo school), legalism (Fa-jia), Taoism, the school of naturalists (or the school of Yin-Yang) and school of the names ("sophists"). Most of these schools were concentrated on research of ethical and political problems while ontological and gnoseological problems were considered very much the secondary and this tendency continued through all the periods of China history.
School of Taoism (Daoism). "Tao De Ching" (or "Dao De Jing", "Book on a dao and de", "Book of Lao Tzu") is the main book of Taoism. If most popular in China Kun Tzu school mainly researched the ethical and political problems, representatives of Taoism (or Daoism) researched the problems of ontology and metaphysics, general structure of world and laws in its existence and development, the problem of harmony in nature and society, existence and non-existence, activity and non-activity. The understanding of all these problems by Lao Tzu was based on the categories of Dao (Tao) and De, which had given the name of main book and caused its division in 2 parts. These categories serve as the center of all net of categories used for the comprehension of all ontological, gnoseological, social, ethic and moral problems in their integrity.
The very name of Taoism (Daoism) school suggests that Tao (Dao) category constituted the basis of the world view of its representatives. At first (in pre-philosophical period) it was the mythological idea of most general law of world existence and stability, and then it became the most basic concept of Chinese philosophy. The representatives of Kun Tzu school, Mo school and Fa-jia also participated in the discussion about Tao, but if for them Tao was the direct manifestation of the Eternal Skies will and so the main way of China development, moral and political conduct of people, which the surrounding barbarians and generally all the counties of the world must copy, respect and obey (this provides ideological background for Chinese world supremacy and expansionism politics which continued up to our days). For Taoists Tao was all-embracing world view concept, a natural source and fundamental principle, which takes place not only in Celestial Empire, Tianxia or Empire under Mandate of Heaven (official title of Chinese Empire) but also in the entire world. Tao is not only the source and fundamental principle, but also the all-embracing law of the Universe.
In Lao Tsu’s view, a world and all existing in it are in the process of motions and changes (literally on the road, in the constant inconstancy). Understanding of the specific essence of individual things is achieved due to De. If Tao generates things, De shapes them, gives them specificity, definiteness, individuality. Lao Tsu explains the world changeability in dialectic way and reaches a conclusion, that the change of things is caused by opposite elements and energies (Yin and Yang) present in them.
The school of legalism (Fajia or Fa-jia) was one of the most influential schools of Ancient Chinese philosophy. Roughly meaning "house of Fa" (administrative "methods" or "standards"), this school represented the ideology of "men of methods" (fashu zishi) who established the basic principles of traditional Chinese Empire bureaucratic mechanisms. Almost ignoring ethical problems or models of humanistic functioning of society, they instead examined contemporary (the Warring States period) social practice; emphasizing a realistic consolidation of the wealth and power of autocratic state rulers, with the goal of achieving military victories and conquests by increased civilian order, security and stability. Generally their ideas are very similar to those of the famous European Renaissance politician Machiavelli. The first representative of legalism was Shen Buhai (400–337 BC), who created the first abstract theory of administration. Shang Yang (390–338 BC), who was a leading force of transformation of the peripheral Qin state into a militarily powerful and strongly centralized kingdom and lead to Qin's ultimate conquest of the other states of China in 221 BC. Han Fei (280–233 BC) synthesized the main ideas of the other Fa-Jia in his book “The Han Feizi” which is commonly thought of as the greatest of all Legalist texts. After the association of Ancient Chinese kingdoms in the centralized state Fa-jia becomes dominant ideology and this resulted in brief prohibition of Kun Tzu and Taoism for short period of time during the Qin Dynasty. The famous “Art of War” by Sun Tzu incorporated both Taoist philosophy of inaction and impartiality, and Legalist concept of punishment and rewards as systematic measures of organization, and also recall Han Fei's concept of interaction between power and tactics. 
Confucian (Kun Tzu) Philosophy. Confucius (Kun Tzu, 551–479 BC, the “Spring and Autumn” period of Ancient China history) was a teacher, editor, politician and philosopher. The Confucian(ism) philosophy emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, sincerity, honor, loyalty, respect of ancient rulers, old rituals and sacral music, kindness and humanism. Following the establishment of Han dynasty after the collapse of Qin dynasty, Confucian philosophy received the status of official ideology of China and it remains so up to modern times. Kun Tzu himself became a deity in Taoism as the councilor of Celestial Emperor. The systems of Neo-Confucianism and later New Confucianism (Modern Neo-Confucianism) were developed on the basis of it. Confucius was believed to edit many of the Chinese classic texts including all of the “Five Classic Books”. His aphorisms were compiled in the “Analects” many years after his death.
Confucius's principles make basis for Chinese, Japanese and Indochinese cultural tradition. He glorified and modelled strong family, ancestor veneration, respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives, viewing family as a basis for ideal government where rulers lead not by punishment but first of all by personal example in having virtues, keeping proper conduct and following the laws. He created the well-known ethical principle of the Golden Rule or golden middle, "Do not do to others what you do not want to be done to yourself". He also established the principle of state regulation of education content and formal need of successful passing the state examination before taking any official position for bureaucracy members with the increased demands in knowledge and logical thinking abilities for each level of hierarchy.
Ancient Greece and Rome Philosophy.
Astonishing advances in art, science and philosophy were made in the Mediterranean region about 2,500 years ago. Greek philosophers were among the first in the world to explain nature in a rational way and to make educated guesses about the creation of the Universe. That is why Greece is often referred to as the birthplace of Western culture. Some of the ancient philosopher's speculations have successfully anticipated findings of 20th century science. The concept of atoms, for example, was first formulated by Leucippus and Democritus around 400 BC. Greek style of thought and cultural values have been extremely influential throughout centuries and lasted until the present day. The ancient Greeks viewed the world in a cosmological, holistic and pantheistic way. Science, philosophy, religion and politics were interwoven and combined into synthetic worldview. Moreover, those who look carefully will find subtle, but intelligible parallels between early Greek philosophy and Eastern thought. As for example, the Heraclitean fire resembles Buddhist impermanence, while the Greek logos resembles the way (Dao) of the Taoism.
Thales from Miletus, 624-546 BC. Thales had traveled to Egypt to study the science of geometry, and later he refined the Egyptian methods of mathematics. When he came back to Miletus, he surprised his contemporaries with his unusual mathematical abilities. He calculated the distance of a ship at sea from observations taken on two points on land, he knew how to determine the height of a pyramid from the length of its shadow and his most famous achievement was the prediction of a solar eclipse in 585 BC. Thales was a universal scholar, as in antiquity modern classification and distinction of the natural sciences and philosophy did not exist; instead, philosophy and science were closely related in the works of the early philosophers and this continued up to Renaissance period. Thales is often believed to be the one who started deductive style of thinking, the process of deriving propositions and mathematical theorems from observation by means of logic.
He was not the only thinker in Ancient Greece whose thoughts were ahead of his time. The idea that all forms of substance can be reduced to a few elements and that every form of matter is made of these elements was conceived in the time of Thales. A perpetual debate arose between Thales and other philosophers about which of the elements (namely water (Thales), air (Anaximenses), fire (Heraclitus) and earth (Empedocles)) is primary. Thales stated that the most primary of all substances is water. Although this sounds a bit odd form the perspective of modern science, there is some truth in it, as modern scientists believe life on Earth began its evolution in the oceans and that liquid water is necessary prerequisite to sustain life of any biological organism. Thales also tried to explain the reason of earthquakes not by punishment of angry Poseidon (god of the sea) but by influence of great waves (or shakes) of water which surrounds all the continents. There are two eminent characteristics of the theories of Thales and his successors: 1) they were perfectly naturalistic, which means they try to explain the world in a common sense fashion without invoking supernatural powers, 2) they were predominantly non-dualistic, either by sidestepping the separation between matter and mind, or by reducing the latter to the former.
Anaximander from Miletus, 610-546 BC. Anaximander made bold inquiries; he questioned the knowledge of the old, the myths, the heavens, and even the gods themselves. He had extremely rational approach in his quest to derive natural explanations for phenomena that previously had been connected to the supernatural powers. While there were many unique aspects in Anaximander's meteorology, geography and cosmology, what he is ultimately known for is his theory of the apeiron. The apeiron is the Boundless or the Infinite. Anaximander claimed that the Universe is boundless and that the number of worlds in it is infinite, and that point of view was generally adopted by astronomy more than two thousand years later. The apeiron is not plainly space and temporal infinity, but the principle and the origin of existence itself. Since very little of Anaximander's own words have survived, we have to turn to Aristotle for a description of the apeiron, "Everything has an origin or is an origin. The Boundless has no origin for otherwise it would have a limit. Moreover, it is both unborn and immortal, being a kind of origin". The apeiron is thus the quintessential primordial ground from which everything arises. Although we don't know whether Anaximander defined the apeiron in any precise manner, it was imagined as kind of primal chaos, a formless and limitless mass, from which solid material substance forms and to which it returns. In Anaximander's own words, “All in the world which have beginning must also have an end, and there is a termination to every process of existence. When things have their origin, then also their destruction happens, as it is the order of things”.
Pythagoras from Samos, 570 - 495 BC. Pythagoras was a famous mathematician and it influenced his understanding of philosophy. The Pythagorean theorem is often cited as the beginning of mathematics in Western culture, and ever since mathematics as the art of demonstrative and deductive reasoning has had a profound influence on Western philosophy, which can be observed down to XX century philosophers Russell and Wittgenstein. According to Pythagoras, to understand the world means to become acquainted with the numbers, which are the basis of it, and harmony of ideas and objects interaction which the numbers reflect and describe. He called the numbers the abstraction, of which proper connection to God could be established. It was Pythagoras, who introduced the notion “philosopher”. Pythagoras and his follower Plato believed in metempsychosis (human soul could inhabit another body after death) and thought that eating meat was an abominable thing, saying that the souls of all animals enter different animals after death. Pythagoras introduced the idea of eternal recurrence into Greek thought, which was apparently motivated by his studies of earlier Egyptian scriptures, and this idea soon became popular in Greece and later Rome. It was Pythagoras’ ambition to reveal in his philosophy the validity and structure of the divine order, for which souls return in a constant cycle. So he was one of the most prominent representatives of objective idealistic ontology, which claims ideal world to be primary over material or natural.
Heraclitus from Ephesus (region of Ionia in Asia Minor, 535-475 BC). He became famous as the "flux and fire" philosopher for his utterance, "All things are flowing." Heraclitus believed in usefulness of war. He said, "War is father of all, king of all. It makes somebody equal to gods, it makes others true men, it makes some slaves, it makes some free. We must realize that war is universal, and strife is justice, and that all things come into being and pass away through strife." Heraclitus praised the power obtained through self-mastery, and despised the passions that distract men from their chief ambition, self-purification, "It is not good for men to get all that they wish to get. Whatever our desire wishes to get, it purchases at the cost of soul."
Heraclitus held that fire is the most primary and primordial element out of which everything else arises. Fire is the origin of all matter; through it things come into being and pass away. Fire itself is the symbol of perpetual change because it transforms a substance into another substance without being a substance itself. Diogenes Laertius put down such the variant of Heraclitus teaching, "This world, which is the same for all, no one of gods or men has made; but it was ever, is now, and ever will be eternal fire. Fire lives by the death of air, and air lives by the death of fire; water lives by the death of earth, earth by that of water. There are measures of its increase and measures of its decrease". Like Anaximander, Heraclitus sees a cosmic balance in the struggle of the primary elements of fire, water, air and earth. Due to the eternal transmutation of forms, which are made of the elements, no single element ever gains predominance. This implies that Heraclitus interpreted fire as not destructive but merely transforming power. The process of transformation does not happen by chance, but is, according to Heraclitus, the product of logos, the most general cosmic set of principles, law and reason.
Another of Heraclitus’ main teachings was the idea of unity of opposite elements. The unity of opposites means that opposite elements cannot exist without each other. "There is no day without night, no summer without winter, no warm without cold and no good without bad", in his own words. Heraclitus developed dialectics as teaching about constant, general and unstoppable development caused by struggle of opposite elements in any object and in the world as whole system. He said, “You cannot step into the same river twice, for fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you.” This simple sentence expresses the main idea of his philosophy, meaning that the river isn't actually the same at two different points in time. Heraclitus believed that everything is in the state of permanent flux and, hence, reality is merely a succession of transitory states. He told people that nothing is the same now as it was before, and thus nothing what is now will be the same tomorrow. He included the idea of impermanence into Greek theoretical thought, and after Heraclitus Greek philosophy was not the same anymore. The later periods of European philosophy were also heavily influenced by dialectical teaching, as for example XIX century German classical philosophy or Marxism. 
Leucippus and Democritus from Abdera (460 - 370 BC) were the most important representatives of Ancient materialistic philosophy, which claims material component of the world to be primary over ideal, as they developed atomistic theory of substance. With the work of Leucippus and Democritus Ancient Greek philosophy reaches its zenith when the initial question of Thales after the true nature of matter culminated 180 years later in the subtle concept of atoms, which bears an amazing resemblance to the modern atomistic theory of chemistry and physics. For this reason, Leucippus and Democritus have undoubtedly deserved the first price for the best guess in antiquity, as far as natural science is concerned. They claimed that the nature of things consists of an infinite number of extremely small particles, which they called atoms (which means "indivisible" and "indestructible" in Ancient Greek language). Because of their indestructibility, atoms are eternal. The notion of the atom itself as an "eternal ones" may be interpreted as a concession to the Eleatic school of philosophy. Democritus thought atoms may be placed close enough one to another to allow no empty space, which is in contrary to modern point of view. According to the atomists, nature exists only of two things, namely atoms and the void that surrounds them. Leucippus and Democritus thought that there are many different kinds of atoms, each distinct in shape and size and that all atoms constantly move around in space. Surprisingly they did not deem it necessary to give a reason for the motion of atoms, whereby they avoided the sort of logical mistakes that other philosophers had made. Instead, they stated that atoms move at random, like in the modern kinetic theory of gases. Democritus illustrated the movement of atoms with an observation he made in nature. He compared it to the movement of motes in a sunbeam when there is no wind. At this point, the atomists entered into what their predecessors had postulated to be the origin of matter, namely water (Thales), air (Anaximenses), fire (Heraclitus) and earth (Empedocles). They said, quite accurately as we know today, that these four elements are not primordial substances, but are composed of atoms like everything else. Modern science has proven the atomists to be right. 
Classical period of Ancient Greece philosophy.
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle are main representatives of this period.
Socrates (470-399 BC) is most famous for the following statements, “Become acquainted with yourself” and “I know only that I know nothing”. Due to Socrates human being became the center of philosophy for the first time. He connected knowledge with human virtue and its upbringing as the main assignment of society. The second idea of Socrates was idea of dialectics as the art of discussion, during which participants get closer to truth. The very notion “dialectics” is translated from the Ancient Greek as a skill to communicate and conduct dispute. Socrates gave priority to the dialogical nature of thinking as the joint attainment of truth through collation of different notions and concepts, their comparison, analysis, definition and so on. He regarded his theory of proceeding by means of induction from vague notions to clearly defined general concepts as a method of perfecting the art of living, of achieving virtue. According to Socrates, logical operations must be subordinated to ethical aims and the acquisition of true knowledge should serve the moral purpose.
This Socratic principle had a deep influence on various trends in the evolution of methodology, especially on the teaching of Plato (427-347 BC), who developed a dialectics of concepts and categories, the purpose of which was to find the idea or principle in everything. In order to achieve this, human thoughts should move according to the objective logic of the objects under consideration which is the embodiments of ideal supernatural essence. Plato formulated the first system of objective idealism. The world of ideas was regarded as overnatural realm of ultimate constancy, perfection, harmony, hierarchy, beauty and goodness (this idea later was incorporated in Christian theology). Ideas exist eternally and independently on the world of things and are primary to it. Plato developed notion of idea as an ultimate generalization, only partially implemented in any individual object and reflected in process of human thinking. Thus, Heraclites’, Socrates’ and Plato’s ideas contributed to formation the first historical form of dialectics – natural dialectics of ancient philosophy. Plato’s book of “Dialogues” is devoted to description of Socrates’ communication with other philosophers and contains quite systematic description of dialectical teaching in its objective idealistic variant, where realm ideas is the source of all the theoretical knowledge and practical activity experience has nothing to do with it. The second book of Plato is “The State” or “Republic” in which he described the first theoretical model of totalitarian society, referring mostly to practical experience of extremely militarized state of ancient Sparta but camouflaging it by pre-historical Atlantis state, which was sunken beneath the waves of modern days Atlantic Ocean by the angry gods as punishment for citizens’ improper behavior.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C., also known as Stagirit as he was born Stagira in Thrace) was titled “Father of all the Sciences” by both Christians and Muslims during Middle Ages. His father was the home doctor at king of Macedonia. At the age of 18 Aristotle came to Athens and became a student of Plato. He remained in Academy for 20 years, up to the death of Plato at 347 B.C. Then Aristotle spent some time traveling and at 347 B.C. Aristotle became the tutor of Alexander the Great and founded the first Museum in Pella, the capital of Macedonia. During 347-323 B.C. he lived in Athens, established the famous Lyceum school and wrote most of his books. Aristotle as the philosopher was very much different from the predecessors. His works demonstrate critical and careful style of theoretical thinking; he was a professional teacher, not a passionate prophet.
Aristotle’s Physics (which includes two books, “Physics” and “On the Heavens”) was extremely influential and dominated science until the time of Galileo. Aristotle tried to overcome narrowness of materialistic and idealistic schools of Ancient Greek philosophy and called himself representative of realism which was in most aspects true. He thoroughly occupied himself with natural sciences, especially, biology and medicine. He did not have any doubts in real existence of the material world, which basis consists of not atoms or certain substance, but “matter” (material substance), something formless, just raw material for formation of individual bodies. Thus, Aristotle was the first to introduce notions “matter” in ontological sense. Material substance, according to Aristotle, is passive and inert by itself. Material world development and transformation of any individual material objects takes place under the influence of “form” as some non-material active factor. He believed that God was the very first form who created all the others. It can be seen on this example how Aristotle tried to connect materialism and idealism in a single philosophy. The ultimate source of all movement is Will: on Earth the capricious Will of human beings and animals, but in Heavens the unchanging Will of the Supreme Artificer (later philosophy of will was developed by Nietzsche and Schopenhauer). Physics of Aristotle is the science of what the Greeks called "phusis" (or "physis"), a word which is translated "nature," but it has not exactly the meaning which modern theorists attach to that word. We still speak of "natural science" and "natural history," but "nature" by itself, though it is a very ambiguous word, seldom means just what "phusis" meant. "Phusis" is connected to growth; one might say it is the "nature" of an acorn to grow into an oak, and in that case one would be using the word in the Aristotelian sense. The "nature" of a thing, Aristotle says, is its end or final form, for the sake of which it exists. Thus, the word had a teleological implication and actions were explained by results and not causes. Aristotle described “realms of things” which exist by nature and some arise from other causes. Four kinds of causes were recognized: material, formal, efficient and final. Animals, plants, and simple bodies (elements) exist by nature; they have an internal principle of motion which includes changes of quality or size. Nature is a source of being moved or at rest. Things "have a nature" if they have an internal principle of this kind.
Aristotle has formulated the law of correlation, principle of purposefulness in a nature, the law of unity of ontogenesis and philogenesis (every organism repeats the development of a kind to which it belongs). He had shown the contradiction between growth and increase. Aristotle is founder of the theory of vitalisme (vita - life, lisme - vital force). Aristotle proposed the definition of life, conditioned this process by both natural and social factors. In his opinion spiritual activity, first of all rational thinking, is main differentiation of human from animal.
Aristotle's metaphysics. "Metaphysics" is the main philosophical work of Aristotle, but in times of Aristotle the word "metaphysics" was not used yet. This concept was caused by systematization of the manuscripts of Aristotle by Andronicus of Rhodes who serially arranged books on philosophy after books on physics. From here came the name "metaphysics" as "that after physics".
Aristotle developed the theory of dialectics of categories and became the founder of formal logic. The best place in metaphysics is the criticism of the theory of ideas and alternative theory of universals. The strongest argument is the argument of the «third man»: if the man is the man, because he resembles the ideal man, there should be a still more ideal man, to which both ordinary and ideal men are similar.
The next point in Aristotle's metaphysics is the distinction of «form» and «matter» or material substance. Aristotle's example, «If a man makes a bronze sphere, bronze is the matter and spheroid is the form; while in the case of a calm sea, water is the matter and smoothness is the form». Form is more real and important than matter and this is reminiscent of the sole reality of the ideas. The doctrine of matter and form in Aristotle works is connected with the distinction of potentiality and actuality. Pure material substance is a potentiality of form; all change is what we should call "evolution" and so after the change the thing in question has more form than before, it is considered to be more "actual". God is pure form and pure actuality; in Him, therefore, there can be no changes. It will be seen that this doctrine is optimistic and teleological: the Universe and everything in it is developing towards something continually better than what existed before.
According to Aristotle, there are three kinds of substances: those that are sensible and perishable, those that are sensible but not perishable, and those that are neither sensible nor perishable. The first class includes plants and animals, the second includes the heavenly bodies (which Aristotle believed to undergo no change except motion) and the third includes the rational soul in man and God.
To understand Aristotle's doctrine of the soul, we must remember that the soul is the "form" of the body, and that space-dimensional shape is the kind of "form." Then what is in common between soul and shape is the conferring of unity upon a certain amount of matter. The part of a block of marble, which afterwards becomes a statue is, as yet, not separated from the rest of the marble; it is not yet a "thing", and has not yet any unity, which confers substantiality upon a plant or animal Aristotle calls "soul." But "mind" is something different, less intimately bound up with the body; perhaps it is a part of the soul, but it is possessed by only a small minority of living beings. Mind as speculation cannot be the cause of movement, for it never thinks about what is practicable, and never says what is to be avoided or what pursued.
A similar doctrine, though with a slight change of terminology, is set forth in the book of “Nicomachean Ethics”. There is one element in the soul that is rational and one that is irrational. The irrational part is twofold: the vegetative, which is found in everything living, even in plants, and the appetitive, which exists in all animals. The life of the rational soul consists in contemplation, which is the complete happiness of man, though not fully attainable. "Such a life would be too high for man; … but as something divine is present in him; and by so much as this is superior to our composite nature is its activity superior to that which is the exercise of the other kind of virtue (the practical kind). If reason is divine, then, in comparison with man, the life in accordance with it is divine in comparison with human life. But we must not follow those who advise us, being men, to think of human things, and being mortal, of mortal things, but must, so far as we can, make ourselves immortal, and strain every nerve to live in accordance with the best thing in us; for even if it is small in size, it has great power and its worth surpass everything".
Aristotle's Politics. Aristotle's Politics is interesting as it shows the common prejudices of educated Ancient Greeks in his time and important as a source of many principles, which remained influential until the end of the Middle Ages. Aristotle considered that the state should not have more than hundred thousand citizens, and preached the theory of a golden mean (which is revived as “golden billion” in XXI century). He is emphatic in distinguishing oligarchy and democracy by the economic status of the governing party: there is oligarchy when the rich govern without consideration for the poor, democracy when power is in the hands of the needy and they disregard the interest of the rich. Monarchy is better than aristocracy, aristocracy is better than democracy. But the corruption of the best is worst; therefore tyranny as corrupted monarchy is worse than oligarchy and oligarchy as corrupted aristocracy is worse than democracy. In this way Aristotle arrives at a qualified defense of democracy; for most actual governments are bad, and therefore, among actual governments, democracies tend to be best (later repeated by Churchill in XX century).
Aristotle explains what a tyrant must do to retain power. He must prevent the rise of any person of exceptional merit, by execution or assassination if necessary. He must prohibit common meals, clubs, and any education likely to produce hostile sentiment. There must be no literary assemblies or discussions. He must prevent people from knowing each other well, and compel them to live in public at his gates. He should employ spies, like the female detectives at Syracuse. He must sow quarrels, and impoverish his subjects. He should keep them occupied in great works, as the king of Egypt did in getting the pyramids built. He should give power to women and slaves, to make them informers. He should make war, in order that his subjects may have something to do and be always in want of a leader. Many anti-democratic regimes followed this description through all the history including modern times.
The book, in the form in which we have it, appears to be unfinished, and ends with a discussion of education. Education, of course, is only for children who are going to be citizens; slaves may be taught useful arts, such as cooking, but these are no part of education. The citizen should be molded to the form of government under which he lives, and there should therefore be differences if the city government is oligarchic or democratic. In general, Aristotle assumes that the citizens will all have a share of political power. Children should learn what is useful to them, but not vulgarizing; for instance, they should not be taught any skill that deforms the body, or that would enable them to earn money and so make them closer to material world and more distant from realm of ideas. The purpose of education is "virtue" instead of advantage. "Virtue" was explained in "Ethics" and later became very popular in Roman Republic society as following tradition and having sound everyday mind.
Assuming like Plato that the object of true knowledge are universal ideas, Aristotle taught that this universality is to be discovered by investigating individual, empirically given things in which some part of idea is contained. The methodology of such research is set forth in Aristotle's “Logics”, which closely analyses the principles for defining a term or constructing a statement, the rules of inference and proof, the role of induction and deduction in attaining truth and so on. Aristotle's “Aesthetics” expounds the principles of creativity and analysis in works of art. He also made a methodologically important elaboration of the theory of categories as the organizing forms of cognition and their dialectics. Aristotle proposed logical deduction as the ultimate method of knowledge acquiring, which means descending from general ideas to more and more individual cases of their use.
Late Greek (Hellenistic) and Roman Philosophy
The Sceptics were the first relativists in philosophy. Skepticism as a philosophy was launched by Xenophanes of Colophon (570-475 BC). In the broadest sense of the word "skepticism" there had been a long tradition of it in Greek philosophy. Xenophanes had taught that, although we can always learn more than we know, we can never be sure that we have reached any final truth. The first person who made skepticism to be ultimate of his thought and adopt it as a theoretical philosophical teaching with an active refusal to believe anything was Pyrrho of Elis (360-270 BC). He founded a whole school of philosophers that became known as Skeptics and their brand of systematic, all-embracing philosophical Skepticism is sometimes referred to as Pyrrhonism. Skepticism remains an important part of philosophy up to our days.
Epicurean philosophy. The Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy of Epicurus (341-270 BC) was materialistic, pleasure-seeking and non-religious. Epicurus accepted the atomism of Democritus and believed that all in the material Universe is composed of atoms and space between them. Since it is impossible for atoms to come into existence out of nothing or pass away into nothing they are indestructible and eternal. However, their movements are unpredictable, and no combination of them exists forever. For this reason, physical objects as combinations of atoms joined together and then dispersing again are ephemeral. All changes in the Universe consist either of this endlessly repeated process and objects thus formed are constantly moving in space. Humans are among the objects formed in this way. A group of particularly fine atoms comes together to make a body and a mind in the form of a single entity, a human being, whose eventual dispersal is inevitable. But this dispersal is not to be feared, as such dissolution means that the entity of the human being ceases to exist when we die, and therefore there is no one to whom being dead happens: so long as man exist, death does not exist, and when death comes, man does not exist. Those terrors of afterlife, that so many religions threaten people with, can happen to nobody. "Death is nothing to us", said Epicurus; and anyone who genuinely grasps that truth is liberated from fear of death. As for the gods, Epicurus manages to get them out of the picture without denying their existence (which would be a dangerous thing for him to do) by saying that they are far, far away and, being gods, they have no desire to become involved in the perpetual mess and turmoil of human affairs. So they are inactive as far as we are concerned, and "we have nothing to hope and nothing to fear" from them, as if they do not exist.
The Stoics. The existence of Stoicism as an organized philosophical school continued for almost five hundred years and due to it Western philosophy ceased to be specifically Greek and became international. The voices of the most famous of them came from the entire gamut of the social hierarchy, like slave (Epictetus, 55-135 AD), professional teacher and speechmaker (Seneca the Elder, 54 BC - 39 AD) and even a Roman Emperor (Marcus Aurelius, 121-180 AD). Zeno (334-262 BC) of Citium, in Cyprus, was the founder of Stoicism. The main motto of Stoics was “Since death and adversity are out of our control, and come to everyone, we should meet them with dignified acceptance”. The basic idea of the Stoic philosophy was that no authority can be higher than reason. The consequences of that belief made the most important tenets of Stoic philosophy. First, the world of Nature revealed by human reasoning is all the reality which exists. There is nothing "higher". Nature itself is governed by rationally intelligible principles. Humans are part of Nature. The spirit of rationality that imbues everything is what is meant by God. As thus conceived, God is not outside the world and separate from it, he is all-present in the world as the mind and self-awareness of it. Because humans are at one with Nature, and there is no higher realm, there can be no question of soul going anywhere "else" after death as there is nowhere to go. Human body and soul will be just dissolved back into Nature.
The ethics evolved from this belief let Stoicism to achieve its great fame and influence. As Nature is governed by rational principles there are reasons why everything is as it is and humans cannot change it, nor should desire to. Therefore our attitude in the face of our own mortality, or what may seem to us personal tragedy, should be one of unruffled acceptance. In so far as our emotions rebel against this, our emotions are in the wrong. The Stoics believed that emotions are judgments, and therefore they are forms of cognition and "knowledge", whether true or false. People who adopted the Stoic philosophy were often able to endure life's hardships with calm and dignity. But even for them there might come a time when they would no longer wish to go on living — for example in circumstances of personal ruin or disgrace, or in the agonies of a terminal disease. In those circumstances, they believed, the rational thing to do was to end one's own life painlessly, and so a high proportion of the well-known Stoics ended their lives by committing suicide. And, of course, to this very day the words "stoic" and "stoicism" are in familiar use in our language, with perhaps grudgingly admiring overtones, to mean "withstanding adversity without complaint". Many people subscribed to an ideal in ethics which is essentially the same as that of the Stoics even if they have never consciously formulated this fact to themselves. The famous "stiff upper lip" of the public-school educated Englishman was precisely an example of Stoicism in practice and in action, partly rooted in a classical education.
Control Tasks and Questions
1.	Name and describe the main subdivisions of Ancient India philosophy.
2.	Name and describe the main subdivisions of Ancient China philosophy.
3.	Name and describe the main historical stages of Ancient Greece philosophy development.
4.	Characterize the main representatives and ideas of “natural philosophy” period.
5.	Describe the main content and historical outcomes of Democritus atomistic theory.
6.	What was the main specific of Socrates variant of dialectics?
7.	Characterize the Plato’s teaching about world and human’s place in it.
8.	Describe the main content of Aristotle’s theory of world and its understanding.
9.	Describe the main content of Aristotle’s theory of human and society.
10.	Name and describe the main subdivisions of Hellenistic philosophy (skepticism, stoicism, Neo-Platonism, Epicureans).
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
1. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy / B. Russell. – New York : Simon and Schuster, 1961. – 837 p.
2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew. – New York : St. Martin’s Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. Davies B. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion / B. Davies. – Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. – 344 p.
5. Connell D. Essays in Metaphysics / D. Connell. – Dublin : Four Courts Press, 1996. – 232 p.
6. Strauss L. History of Political Philosophy/ L. Strauss, J. Cropsey. Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press, 1987. – 966 p.
7. N.V. Popov, A.A. Zakordonets. Philosophy. Scholarly applicable methods for international students / A.A. Zakordonets, N.V. Popov. Kyiv: Bogomolets National Medical University, 2004. — 72 p.
8. Vermenko A. Yu. Philosophy: [textbook] / A. Yu. Vermenko. – Nizhin : PE Lisenko N.M., 2016.  – 150 p.

Part 3. Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy
Philosophy of the Middle Age Arabic Countries
Arabic philosophy was formed along with the Islam theology in VIII-IX century A.D. It widely used Ancient Greek philosophy ideas, especially works of Aristotle. Al-Kindi (800-870) was called the first Arabic philosopher. He tried to resolve the problem of compatibility of philosophy and Islam in the rational way. Al-Farabi (870-950) received the title of “The Second Teacher”, since Aristotle was considered to be the first one. He translated the main books of Aristotle into Arabic and made commentaries to them. Most famous works of Al-Farabi were “Classification of Sciences” and “Pearls of Wisdom”. The main features of philosophy by Al-Farabi were idealism, rationalism and encyclopedic systematic approach. He advocated the causation principle and concept of world eternity and in that way he opposed its creation by God. In opinion of Al-Farabi, better understanding of mankind would allow better understanding of God and his interrelation with humans, in which man is able of reasoning and self-determination.
The most famous Arabic philosopher and doctor of Middle Ages was Ibn-Sina or Avicenna (980-1037). He advocated the idea of the world’s equal eternity to God as its distant reason. He developed teachings on truth duality and on universal categories as most general notions, which reflect the general qualities of object of perception or form of matter. Avicenna created the specific classification of sciences and had written more than 300 works, many of which were devoted to main problems of medicine. Generally, investigation of connection between human being and nature and desire to use this knowledge to improve medical treatment and human health care system was typical for all Eastern Ancient and Medieval philosophy.
Philosophy of the Middle Age European Countries
The most characteristic feature of medieval world outlook was Theo centrism. God was considered to be single, indivisible and unchangeable while all other objects of Universe were considered to be plural, divisible, changeable and existing only due to God and in some relation to him. The development of medieval philosophy was concentrated on religious problems. Philosophy consciously put itself to service for religion. “Philosophy is a maidservant of theology” was a credo of educated people of that time. Cathedrals and monasteries were centers of culture and learning and most of the scholars were representatives of clergy. Philosophical disputes concerned a number of world outlook issues, such as whether the world was created by God or it exists eternally; how can human freedom of mind and divine necessity be combined; if God is truth, good and beauty, then where the evil originates from in the world and why Creator puts up with it; how can the Bible truths and human mind’s truths be sorted with; The search for answers to these questions determined the main features of medieval philosophy. The Bible traditionalism is typical for it, as the Bible was declared the measure of evaluation of any philosophical theories. The criterion of theory truth was proclaimed its conformity of spirit and the letter of the Bible and religious authorities. Tendency to tutoring aimed to provide education with the purpose of moving closer to God is also typical for this period. “True philosophy” was “Christian philosophy”, substantiating opportunity of personal rescue.
The earliest period of Christian Middle Age philosophy (I-II centuries AD) was apologetics, the philosophy of defending Christians against other religions. Its main representative was Tertullian (155-240 AD). For him the triumph of faith is greatest when to the unaided reason a dogma appears most absurd, the true understanding comes through true belief and too much knowledge leads to doubt which brings harm.
The next period (III-VIII cent. AD) of medieval philosophy was patristic, a teaching of 'fathers of church' – Geronimo of Milan, Augustine of Hippo and others. The most well known representative of patristic was St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430 AD). Believing that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin and made seminal contributions to the development of just war theory. When the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine imagined the Church as a spiritual City of God and so only one possible source of authority for any ruler. His thoughts on Trinity nature and role were highly regarded by both Catholic and Orthodox Christian church. Augustine gave an interesting interpretation of time. He said that in soul there were 3 stages: waiting that is directed in future, attention that is connected with modern life and memory that holds the past. So due to these 3 stages (waiting, attention and memory) the soul constitutes the time. Time would exist even in the case of existence of only one soul. Augustine denied the circling and repeating concept of time (common for Ancient World) and developed line progress concept of history.
Late medieval philosophy: Scholastics. Term scholastic came from Greek word "schola" that means school. In medieval period “scholastics” term was used to name teachers of church schools. This idea appeared due to organization of medieval schools, where “secondary” disciplines such as medicine, philosophy, law were under influence of theology. Later this word was used to characterize a period of highly developed medieval philosophy. The main aim of scholastic teaching was systematization of church teachings and defense of them against both common superstition and heresy. This period was still characterized by prevalence of belief over reasoning. Scholasticism pretended to be completed, rationally perfect system of philosophy, recognizing Bible as the top of knowledge and comments to it as the best means of teaching. The ideas of most famous philosopher of that period Thomas Aquinas are still alive in modern Catholicism as neo Thomism.
The epoch of scholastics may be divided into sub-periods. XI-XII century was a period of scholastic birth, which started with works of from Ierugen (810-878) and ends with Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109), Julbern of Porretan (1076-1154) and Pierre Abelard (1079-1142). Their works excited interest to knowledge at all social classes, which lead to increase in need of formal education and as a result in XIII century numerous universities were created in Europe. XIII century was "golden age of scholastics". It was epoch of such outstanding scholars as Albert the Great (1206-1280), Bonaventura (1221-1274), John Duns Scotus (1266-1308), Thomas Aquinas or Thoma Aquinatus (1224-1274). XIV century is a period of descendants of knowledge. XV-XVI century period representatives are Thomas Kaetan (1469-1534) and Francesco de Vitorian (1546). XIX-XXI century period is called Neo-Scholastic and was started with works of Pope Leo XIII. At our time term scholastic is applied to scholars, who had different points of view and lived in different historical periods. The common thing is that they all agreed with statements of Catholic Church, but each scholar interpreted those statements in his own way.
Serious discussion was held between realism and nominalism as two opposite approaches to scholastic. The representatives of nominalism (from nominee – name, notion) contended that general notions are the product of human thinking, reflection of perception results. Avicenna (980-1037), Pierre Abelard (1079-1142), Roger Bacon (1220-1292) and William of Ockham (1287-1347) and adhered to this position. The representatives of realism (from realis – real) admitted that general notions (the Bible notions, first of all) exist in reality and eternally, independently on the objective world. They have divine, non-historical character and so must not be changed by mortals.
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) researched a wide complex of problems, the center of which was correlation of religion and philosophy, belief and knowledge. He determined philosophy as the most general theory concerning the results of perception of nature and life. Theology is God’s teaching, going from God and Church. Therefore, theology must direct philosophy, and the latter is to be theology maidservant. Thomas Aquinas, in essence, recognized science as the way to truth. Human being was described as the unity of soul and body. Belief should be primary to mind, which meant that soul remained the subject of belief and body was the subject of knowledge. Thomas Aquinas systematized logical and theological proves of God’s existence, almighty and completely benevolent character and was titled Angelic Doctor of Philosophy for it. Thomas Aquinas also addressed to the problem of origin of general notions and terms (universalias). In opinion of Thomas Aquinas, the first and major formal difference between philosophy and theology is found in their principles and starting points. The assumptions of the philosopher which his discussions and arguments are ultimately driven back, are in the public domain. They are things that everyone knows; they are where disagreement between participants of discussion must come to an end. These principles are not themselves the products of proof — which does not of course mean that they are immune to rational analysis and inquiry — and thus they are said to be known by themselves (“per se”, as opposed to “per alia”). This is true for all the sciences, where the most common principles just are in the background and the proper principles or starting points of the particular science function partially while the common principles function across the whole realm of thinking and being. By contrast, the discourse of the theologian is ultimately driven back to starting points or principles which constitute the basis of faith and are authoritatively conveyed by the Bible. All the faithful respect these truths, see other truths implied by them, spell out their interrelations and defend them against the accusation of being nonsense. Theological discourse looks like any other discourse and is governed by the common principles of thought and being, but it is characterized formally by the fact that theological arguments and analyses are truthful only for those who accepts Holy Book revelation as true. This provides a formal test for deciding whether a piece of discourse is philosophical or theological.
The Age of Renaissance (XIV-XVII centuries AD) was the time of great changes in economical, political and cultural life of the European countries. This is the period of transition from the Middle Ages to New Time, transition from feudal orders to the bourgeois ones. Formation of national states and church reforms were typical for it. The rapid cities growth and development, manufacturing production, ascension to world trade, which involved in its orbit all remote regions and lead to gradual transfer of the main trade ways from Mediterranean northward, especially after fall of Byzantium and great geographical discoveries of XV and XVI centuries, have transformed the life of the medieval Europe. In XVI century disintegrated Holy Roman Empire of German nation became the arena of two first anti feudal revolution — a Great peasant war in Germany and Netherlands rebellion. The changes happened in all the spheres and aspects of society and person life and world outlook such as arts and culture, natural and social sciences, literature and philosophy. Renaissance appeared in most rich and powerful self-ruling cities of the Italy but soon covered all the countries of Europe. The appearance of the typography opened new possibilities for spreading literacy and scientific knowledge, ant together with more regular and close contacts between countries this promoted the rapid development of radically new world outlook, which was based on philosophical and scientific ideas of Renaissance.
Philosophy of Renaissance upheld the positions of humanism, anthropocentrism and pantheism, they put human being in the center of their discussion. They exalted human being as a creator of culture and material values, God’s active “helper” in creating the world. This is an epoch of beginnings of new art (Raphael, Dante, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo), the first steps of modern natural science (Nicolas Copernicus, Galileo Galilee, Giordano Bruno, Nicholas of Cusa) and anthropological sciences (Paracelsus, Erasmus Desiderius, Michael Montague), new political and social ideas (Pico Della Mirandolla, Nicola Machiavelli), first social Utopias (Thomas Moore, Thomazzo Campanella). In contrast to the Middle Ages, when it was believed that human life on Earth does not have independent value but provides just short training for immortal life after death, Renaissance gave rebirth to ancient Greek ideas about value of human being, his beauty and strength, his responsibility for the conditions of his life (political, economical, legal, moral, aesthetical). Latin language was still official language of scientific communication inherited from Middle Ages and literal meaning of term “Renaissance” was “Revival” of Ancient Greek and Roman culture. Humanistic program, concerning human life’s self-value and individual independence, human opportunity to do virtuous actions, with recognition pf philosophy special role in this process, was formed.
The representatives of the later period of Renaissance were responsible for many theoretic achievements, most important of which were mathematical system of Nicolas of Cusas, heliocentric system of Universe (N. Copernicus) and statement about infinity of the Universe (G. Bruno). Empirical researches of that time were not only natural scientific, but also concerned human being. Paracelsus (1493-1541) was the most prominent representative of philosophy of medicine during Renaissance period. This doctor, scientist and alchemist decisively opposed out-dated traditions of medieval authorities in medicine. He believed that empirical experimental acquirements are more valuable than “bookish wisdom” for a doctor. “Medicine is great and diligent experience and nothing more” he said. Medicine for him is overall science, because it cares about human being which is the center of the world. As a physician of the early 16th century, Paracelsus held a natural affinity with the Hermetic, Neoplatonic, and Pythagorean philosophy schools central to the Renaissance, a world-view exemplified by Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola. Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa and Nicolas Flamel in his “Archidoxes of Magic”. Astrology was a very important part of Paracelsus' medicine and he was a practicing astrologer – as were many of the university-trained physicians working at that time in Europe. Paracelsus even devoted several sections in his writings to the construction of astrological talismans for curing disease. Paracelsus largely rejected the philosophies of Aristotle and Galen, as well as the theory of humours. Although he did accept the concept of the four elements as water, air, fire and earth, he saw them merely as a foundation for other properties on which the constitution of bodies is built. Paracelsus was one of the first medical professors to recognize that physicians required a solid academic knowledge in the natural sciences, especially chemistry. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. His hermetical beliefs were that sickness and health in the body relied upon the harmony of humans (microcosm) and nature (macrocosm). He took a different approach from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification (Hippocrates) but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. As a result of this hermetical idea of harmony, the Universe's macrocosm was represented in every person as a microcosm. Some of his ideas are followed by modern non-traditional medicine, first of all by homeopathies. He is often credited as the "father of toxicology."
The heliocentric theory of Nicolas Copernicus. Through the whole life of Copernicus (1473-1543), from student years in Krakow to the last days, passes the main thread of the creation of the new system of the world, intended to substitute wrong geocentric Ptolemy system. The first sketch to his theory Copernicus have stated in work, which is known under the name "Small commentary of Nicolas Copernicus on hypothesizes about celestial motion". This book was not published at life of the author. In "Small commentary" after short foreword, mentioning about theories of the concentric spheres of Eudeks and Kallipp, as well as theories of Ptolemy, Nicolas Copernicus points to defects of these theories, which compelled him to offer a new theory. This new theory comes with the next statements: “1. The united centre does not exist for all celestial orbits or spheres. 2. Centre of the Earth is not centre of the world, but only centre of the gravity and moon orbit. 3. All spheres move around Sun as around its centre in consequence of which Sun is a centre of the whole world. 4. Distance from the Earth to Sun is much the smaller than to sphere of the unmovable stars (another star systems in modern terminology). 5. Any noticed motion of unmovable stars is caused not by their own movement, but by the movement of Earth which … makes during day full turn around its own unchangeable poles, while stars remain motionless. 6. What seems to us to be the motion of Sun in different seasons, is connected with movement of Earth on its orbit around Sun, as any other planet. Thereby, the Earth possesses more than one motion. 7. Motion of the planets in the sky is conditioned not by their own movement, but by (rotating) movement of the Earth. Consequently, only motion of the Earth is enough for explanation of many events observed on the sky”. In these seven theses with clearly intended sidebars is contained future heliocentrical system, which essence is concluded in that that the Earth simultaneously rotates around its axis and orbits the Sun.
Formulating thesis to its theory, Nicolas Copernicus used the terms of astronomy of XVI century, so he described not movement of the planets but motion of the celestial spheres, each of which corresponded to the certain planet. The fifth thesis claims that sphere of motionless stars does not participate in planetary spheres motion but remains unmovable. And in the last thesis the question is loops, described by planets on the sky in consequence of moving the Earth around the Sun. In theories of Copernicus it turned out to be enough to take the admission about that we stake out planet from the moving Earth, plane of which orbit nearly complies with plane of the orbits of the other planets. Such admission greatly simplified the explanation of loop like moving of the planets in contrast with complex system of epicycles in the theory of Ptolemy. Very important was the fourth thesis: nobody before Copernicus had adjusted Universe to so big size. Having formulated 7 positions to its theories, Copernicus goes to description of the sequences of the location of the celestial spheres (spheres of planets and stars). "Small commentary" was finished with very poetic statement: "Thereby whole thirty four circles are enough for explanation of Universe device and whole round dance with singing of the planets". Copernicus was very proud of his discovery, because he saw in its the most harmonious decision of the problem, the principle due to which all planets moving was possible to interpret by adding the motion on circumferences.
The Endless Universe of Giordano Bruno. Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) created pantheistic cosmological teaching which was hostile to medieval Theo centrism. Giordano Bruno based himself upon pantheistic ideas of Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464, famous in medicine as first doctor who start to count down the pulse of humans) and on heliocentric astronomy of Nicolas Copernicus. Copernicus destroyed the most important principle of Aristotelian physics and cosmology as he rejected the idea about ending of space. Copernicus considered Universe to be unmeasured and boundless "like infinity". He demonstrated that size of the Earth in comparison with size of Universe is very small.
Identifying the space with endless deity, Bruno got the Endless Space. Removing the board between Creator and creation, Bruno destroyed the traditional Aristotelian opposition of the indivisible, active and creative form to boundless passive material substance. Thereby Bruno described the nature to be prefixed to God, active and creative. He attached to the material substance life and motion, which from Plato’s and Aristotle’s times were considered inherent to form. According to Bruno the Nature is "God in things". The Bruno's Pantheism paved the way to the materialistic understanding of nature. Not surprising that teaching of Bruno was blamed by church as heretical. The Holy Inquisition required from the Italian philosopher to refuse his teaching. However Bruno preferred the death to lie and in 1600 he was incinerated.
The pantheistic world outlook of Renaissance formed during XVI age was greatly different from Ancient World pantheism, as it claimed new correlation between the matter and the form, material substance and consciousness. If for ancient Greek philosophers limited was above boundless, unchangeable was above changeable, for philosophers of Renaissance the possibility is richer than urgency, motion and formation were better than unchangeable existing. In this period the special attention was paid to the notion of endless and paradoxes of actual infinity played the role of method for such prominent scientist as Bruno, Copernicus, Galileo and Cavaliers. The achievements of Renaissance science and philosophy, in such a way, directed the ways of their further development in subsequent centuries.
Control Tasks and Questions
1. Name and describe the main periods of medieval philosophy.
2. Name and describe most typical features of medieval philosophy.
3. Describe the main ideas and representatives of patristic philosophy.
4. Describe the main ideas and representatives of apologetic philosophy.
5. Describe the main ideas and representatives of scholastic philosophy.
6. Name and describe the most typical features of Renaissance philosophy.
7. Describe the main content of heliocentric system of Nicolas Copernicus.
8. Describe the main content of pantheistic teaching of Giordano Bruno.
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
1. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy / B. Russell. – New York : Simon and Schuster, 1961. – 837 p.
2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martin’s Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. Davies B. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion / B. Davies. – Oxford, New York : Oxford University Press, 1993. – 344 p.
5. Connell D. Essays in Metaphysics / D. Connell. – Dublin : Four Courts Press, 1996. – 232 p.
6 Redfield R. The Little Community, and Peasant Society and Culture / R. Redfield. – Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. – 288 p.

Part 4. European Philosophy of XVII-XIX Century
During XVII-XIX century European philosophy had been marked by interaction between four main schools of thought: materialism, based on a mechanistic, materialistic interpretation of the Universe; idealism, based on a belief in human or God thought as the ultimate reality, rationalism (where practical experience was considered not important for knowledge formation) and empiricism (practical experience is main source for knowledge formation and main criterion checking out its true character). The interaction between those four main trends has reflected the increasing effect of scientific discovers and political changes on philosophical researches.
Rational Philosophy Representatives. Rene Descartes (1596-1650), the French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician, is sometimes called the father of modern philosophy. Descartes' major works include “Philosophical Essays” (1637), “Meditations on First Philosophy” (1641) and “The Principles of Philosophy” (1644). According to Descartes, physics as theory of knowledge about nature belongs to the system of philosophical knowledge as its main trunk. Mechanics, medicine and ethics serve as the branches of this tree. Metaphysics (philosophy) is its root. Descartes was also naturalist and physiologist; he discovered and substantiated the notion of “reflex”, which is important for understanding of specificity of living organisms and so for medicine as well.
Descartes followed Galileo in criticizing scholastic methods and medieval traditional beliefs, but made mathematics the model for all sciences, applying its deductive and analytical methods to all fields (unlike Bacon, who argued for an inductive method based on observed facts). The most notable contribution that Descartes made to mathematics was the systematization of analytic geometry. He was the first mathematician to attempt to classify causes according to the types of equations that produce them. All knowledge must be built on basis of the rational thinking and deductive method. He resolved to reconstruct all human knowledge on an absolutely certain foundation by refusing to accept any belief until he could prove it to be necessarily true. "In our search for the direct road to truth, we should busy ourselves with no object about which we cannot attain with certitude equal to that of the demonstration of arithmetic and geometry". Descartes' philosophy, sometimes called Cartesianism, substituted the vague spiritual concepts of earlier Christian writers by the system of mechanical interpretations of physical phenomena. Although Descartes had at first been inclined to accept the Copernican theory of the Universe, he abandoned this theory when it was pronounced heretical by the Roman Catholic Church.
The initial point of his investigations was expressed by him in the famous aphorism Cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore I am). From this postulate, that a clear consciousness of his thinking proved his own existence, he also argued the existence of God. According to Descartes, God created two classes of substance that make up the whole of reality: thinking substances (minds) and extended substances (bodies). Roman Catholicism exerted a strong influence on Descartes throughout his life. Despite his mechanistic outlook Descartes accepted the traditional religious doctrine of the immortality of the soul. Descartes maintained that mind and body are two distinct substances, thus exempting mind from the mechanistic laws of nature and providing for freedom of the will. His fundamental separation of mind and body, known as dualism, raised the problem of explaining the way in which two such different substances as mind and body can affect each other, a problem that he was unable to solve and that has been a concern of philosophy ever since. In the most general way dualism in philosophy recognizes material and ideal substance as equal and independent on each other.
Baruch Spinoza, or Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677), was a Dutch rationalist philosopher and religious thinker. His major works include: “Treatise on Thought and Man and His Happiness” (1656), “Epistemological Treatise” (1670), “Ethics Demonstrated with Geometrical Order” (1674) and “On the Improvement of Understanding” (1677). This philosopher tried to overcome Descartes’ dualism, having developed monistic ontological teaching in the form of modern pantheism as teaching about widespread of God’s essence in nature. Nature by Spinoza is God; it is eternal and is the reason of itself. Spinoza’s formulation became widely known: “causa sui” – that is the reason in oneself. Spinoza's pantheistic cosmology (metaphysics) was based upon a number of interrelated philosophical concepts: substance and mode, thought and its extension, causation and parallelism, essence and existence. Considering social life problems, he defended freedom of thought and speech, freedom of consciousness. Spinoza constructed a remarkably precise and rigorous system of philosophy that offered new solutions to the mind-body problem, the conflict between religion and science, and Descartes’ mechanistic elimination of ethical values from the natural world. 
Spinoza's fullest expression is his great work “Ethics Demonstrated with Geometrical Order” (1674) or “Ethica”. Spinoza's ethics was based on a materialistic psychology according to which individuals arc motivated only by self-interest; he rejected providence and freedom of will. But most of the book is devoted to ontological problems. According to this treatise the universe is identical with God, who is the uncaused substance of all things. For Spinoza, the concept of substance is not that of a material reality but rather of a metaphysical entity, the comprehensive and self-sufficient basis for all reality. Attempting to demonstrate that God, substance, and nature are identical, Spinoza arrived at the pantheistic conclusion that all physical objects or ideas are aspects or modes of God, and that God and substance are one. The relationship between substance and the natural world may be summarized as follows. Substance (or God) is natura naturans (nature begetting), or nature in its creative unit, acting as the determiner of its own modes. Modes are natura naturata (nature begotten), or nature in the multiplicity of its manifestations. Modes are transitory, and their existence assumes temporal form. Substance (or God) is eternal, transcending all modal changes. For Spinoza, the variety of attributes of substance is infinite, but all substantial attributes necessarily fall into one of two expressions: thought — the modes of God as particular ideas, extension — the modes of God as material objects. The infinite attributes of thought and extension are considered to depend on and exist in the ultimate reality of the one substance, or God. Spinoza's concept of an impersonal God was met in hostile way by his contemporaries. Born and raised as Jew, Spinoza was excommunicated for his unorthodox views and banished from the city of Amsterdam.
Cartesian dualism which considered that mind and matter are two distinct substances failed to properly explain how mind and body interact. For this reason Spinoza proposed theory of parallelism that explained the apparent causal interactions between material objects and ideas. According to Spinoza every idea has a physical counterpart and every material object has an ideal counterpart: these represent two forms of the same substance, which exist parallel to each other, thus seeming to affect each other but not really doing so. According to Spinoza the realities of this world belongs to one of two realms: the ideal, eternal and unchangeable realm of essence and the material, mortal and changeable in time realm of existence. The essence is a realm of immanent being and thus essence is the immanent cause of existence. According to Spinoza, immanent causation means self-causation, and what (or who) is self-determined is free. The world is ruled by pan determinism as each existent thing of both modes (extension or thought, essence of existence) is determined by its own causal series: every particular object or idea is subject to influence of other objects or ideas, and the form of its being is determined by them.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) was the German philosopher, mathematician and statesman, who was regarded a universal genius during his lifetime and one of the supreme intellects of the 17th century later. He researched problems of mathematics, philosophy, theology, law, diplomacy, politics, history, philology and physics. Leibniz discovered the fundamental principles of infinitesimal calculus and pioneered the development of mathematical logic. Most important philosophical works by Leibniz include: “Discourse on Metaphysics” (1686), “The System of Nature” (1695), “Essays on Human Understanding” (1704) and “Monadology” (1714). Leibniz's ontology and metaphysics was explained in his concept of monads, countless conscious centers of spiritual force or energy which the Universe is composed of. Each monad represents an individual microcosm, mirroring the Universe in varying degrees of perfection and developing independently of all other monads. All the monads are spiritual entities, but those with the most confused perceptions form inanimate objects and those with the clearest perceptions, including self-consciousness and reason, constitute the souls and minds of humanity. The Universe constituted of these monads is the harmonious result of a divine plan, "the best of all possible worlds." God is the Monad of Monads, who creates all other monads and predestines their development in accordance with a pre established harmony. Later this Leibnizian universe was satirized by the French author Voltaire m his novel Kandide (1759). Leibniz's concept that all things are both organic and spiritual was clearly initiated by Spinoza pantheism and in turn influenced 19th century idealism.
Empiric Philosophy Representatives. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was the founder of modern inductive method and the pioneer in the attempt at logical systematization of scientific research procedure. Bacon's most important books were “The Advancement and Proficience of Learning Divine and Human” (1605), “New Method” or “Novum Organum Scientarum” (1620), “Essays or Counsels Civil and Moral” (1625) and “New Athlantis” (1627). His main idea was “Scientia est potentia” – "Knowledge is power," and though he may have had predecessors who said the same thing, he said it with new emphasis. The whole basis of his philosophy was practical: to give mankind mastery over the forces of nature by means of scientific discoveries and inventions. He held that philosophy should be kept separate from theology, not intimately blended with it as in scholasticism. He accepted Christian religion main tenets and thought that reason could demonstrate the existence of God, but he regarded everything else in theology as known only by revelation. Philosophy, however, should depend only upon reason. Bacon was thus an advocate of the doctrine of "double truth," that of reason and that of revelation. This doctrine had been preached by followers of Averroes (Ibn Rushd) in medieval scholastics of thirteenth century, but had been condemned by the Catholic Church as such the "triumph of faith" was too dangerous for the orthodox minded clergy. Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) made ironical use of it, setting forth at great length all that reason could say against some orthodox belief, and then concluding "so much the greater is the triumph of faith in nevertheless believing." It is impossible to make judgment if Bacon's "triumph of faith" was sincere or not for he was surely wise enough not to reveal it. As for example, Bacon argued the problem of unity of material substance and motion.
Bacon regarded creation, widespread and use of knowledge as basis of social well-being in his work “New Atlantis”. He insisted that one should not revive the teaching of the ancient times but develop the spirit of brave search for new knowledge. It is necessary to revive human natural mind, whose astuteness was obscured by typical errors of thought (idols). The way of scientific perception from particular to general, developed by Bacon, became one of the fundamental methods for subsequent development of science – method of induction. He defined philosophy as teaching on types of knowledge and their correlation, teaching on the new inductive method (organon) of perception as opposed to old Aristotle’s “Organon” with method of deduction. Bacon was the first of the long line of scientifically minded philosophers who tried to find some better kind of induction than what is called "induction by simple enumeration." Induction by simple enumeration may be illustrated by a parable. There was once upon a time a census officer who had to record the names of all householders in a certain Welsh village. The first that he questioned was called William Williams; so were the second, third, fourth ... At last he said to himself, "This is tedious; evidently they are all called William Williams. I shall put them down so and take a holiday." But he was wrong; there was just one whose name was John Jones. This shows that we may go astray if we trust too much implicitly in induction by simple enumeration. Bacon believed that he had a method by which induction could be made something better than this. He wished, for example, to discover the nature of heat, which he supposed (rightly) to consist of rapid irregular motions of the small parts of bodies. His method was to make lists of hot bodies, lists of cold bodies, and lists of bodies of varying degrees of heat. He hoped that these lists would show some characteristic always present in hot bodies and absent in cold bodies, and present in varying degrees in bodies of different degrees of heat. By this method he expected to arrive at general laws, having, in the first instance, the lowest degree of generality. From a number of such laws he hoped to reach laws of the second degree of generality, and so on. A suggested law should be tested by being applied in new circumstances; if it would work in these circumstances it was to that extent confirmed. Some instances could be especially valuable because they enable us to decide between two theories, each possible so far as previous observations are concerned; such instances are called "prerogative" instances. Unfortunately Bacon did not only despise the syllogism, but undervalued mathematics, presumably as insufficiently experimental. He was virulently hostile to Aristotle, but thought very highly of Democritus. Although he did not deny that the course of nature exemplifies a Divine purpose, he objected to any admixture of teleological explanation in the actual investigation of phenomena and stated that everything should be explained as following necessarily from efficient causes. He valued his method as the best possibility to arrange the observational data upon which science must be based. He wrote that researchers should be neither like spiders, who spin web out of their own insides, nor like ants, who merely collect anything they meet (which is somewhat unfair to the ants in modern opinion), but like bees, who collect, arrange and reproduce.
One of the most famous parts of Bacon's philosophy of knowledge is his teaching about "five idols of perception" by which he means bad habits of mind that cause people to fall into error. "Idols of the tribe" are those that are inherent in human nature; he mentions in particular the habit of expecting more order in natural phenomena than is actually to be found. "Idols of the cave" are personal prejudices, characteristic of the particular investigator. "Idols of the market-place" are raised by the tyranny of words and the difficulty of escaping from their influence over our minds. "Idols of the theatre" are created by traditional systems of thought, first of all those of Aristotle and the scholastics. "Idols of the schools" consist in thinking that some blind rule (such as the syllogism) can take the place of judgment in investigation.
Science was what interested Bacon most and his general world outlook was scientific, but in traditional “gentleman” style he missed or rejected many scientific achievements of his time. He rejected the Copernican theory, as Copernicus did not advance any very solid arguments, but Bacon ought to have been convinced by Kepler, whose “New Astronomy” (1609) contained very elaborated system of proves for heliocentric theory. Bacon did not even known of the work of Vesalfus, the pioneer of modern anatomy, or of Gilbert, whose work on magnetism brilliantly illustrated inductive method. Still more surprising, he seemed to be unconscious of the researches on the circulation of the blood of Harvey, although Harvey was his medical attendant. Harvey had no very high opinion of Bacon, saying "he writes philosophy like a Lord Chancellor." No doubt Bacon could have done better if he had been less concerned with public success and British Royal Court support.
Bacon's inductive method was faulty through insufficient emphasis on hypothesis. He hoped that mere orderly arrangement of data would make the right hypothesis obvious, but this is seldom the case. As a rule, the framing of hypothesis is the most difficult part of scientific work and the part where great ability is indispensable. So far, no method has been found which would make it possible to invent hypothesis by rule. Usually some hypothesis is a necessary preliminary to the collection of facts, since the selection of facts demands some way of determining relevance. Without something of this kind, the mere multiplicity of facts is baffling. The part played by deduction in science is greater than Bacon supposed. Often, when a hypothesis has to be tested, there is a long deductive journey from the hypothesis to some consequence that can be tested by observation. Usually the deduction is mathematical, and in this respect Bacon underestimated the importance of mathematics in scientific investigation. The problem of induction by simple enumeration remains unsolved to this day. Bacon was quite right in rejecting simple enumeration where the details of scientific investigation are concerned, for in dealing with details we may assume general laws on the basis of which, so long as they are taken as valid, more or less cogent methods can be built up. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) framed four canons of inductive method in his “System of logic” (1843), which can be usefully employed so long as the law of causality is assumed; but this law itself, he had to confess, is to be accepted solely on the basis of induction by simple enumeration. The thing that is achieved by the theoretical organization of science is the collection of all subordinate inductions into a few and perhaps only one that will be most comprehensive. Such comprehensive inductions are confirmed by so many instances that it is thought legitimate to accept, in regards to them, an induction by simple enumeration. This situation is profoundly unsatisfactory, but neither Bacon nor any of his successors have found a way out of it.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), the contemporary and friend of Bacon, was the English philosopher and political theorist. Hobbes' major works include: “Tractatus opticus” (1639), “The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic” (1640-1650), “Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society” or “Elementa Philosophica de Cive” (1647-1651), “On Citizenship” (1651), “Leviathan, or the Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiasticall and Civil” (1651). Hobbes argued for a distinction between knowledge and faith, and suggested that one could not gain knowledge of God. In 1666 the British Parliament passed a bill which included Hobbes “Leviathan” among books to be investigated on charges of atheistic tendencies which caused Hobbes to burn many of his papers. 
Hobbes' political views were influenced by events of the time: the constitutional struggle between Charles I and British Parliament (later described in Hobbes’ book “Behemoth or Long Parliament”); the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell; the Restoration of Charles II. Developing his politics and ethics from a naturalistic basis of self-interest (self-preservation), Hobbes held that since people are fearful and predatory they must submit to the absolute supremacy of the state, in both secular and religious matters, in order to live by reason and gain lasting preservation. In his political theory Hobbes stated that government and social justice are artificial creations based on social contract and must be maintained by force. He supported absolute monarchy as the most effective way of preserving peace. According to Hobbes, life prior to (or devoid of) this social contract was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." In his ethical theory Hobbes derived the rules of human behavior from the law of self-preservation and justified egoistic action as the natural human tendency. Some of his writings on ethics and politics suggest the influence of Renaissance Italian political theorist Nicolas Machiavelli.
Hobbes also constructed a comprehensive system of materialistic ontology and metaphysics that provided a solution to the mind-body problem by reducing mind to the internal motions of the body. Applying the principles of mechanics to all areas of knowledge, he defined the concepts basic to each area, such as life, sensation, reason, value and justice, in terms of matter and motion, thus reducing all phenomena to physical relations and all science to mechanic. Hobbes also contributed to modern psychology and sociology by applying mechanistic principles in an attempt to explain human motivation and social organization. Within psychology, Hobbes proposed that all human actions are caused by material phenomena, with people motivated by opposing forces of appetite as movement toward an object, analogous to pleasure, and aversion as movement away from an object, analogous to pain. He influenced formation of the philosophical doctrine of utilitarianism (together with Locke). 
John Locke (1632-1704) conducted researches in epistemology and political theory. His major works include “A Letter Concerning Toleration” (1689), “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1690), “Two Treatises of Government” (1689), “Some Thoughts Concerning Education” (1693) and “The Reasonableness of Christianity” (1695). Although he accepted Cartesian dualism and a mechanistic description of nature, Locke redirected philosophy away from study of the physical world and made epistemology the principal concern of modern philosophy. He continued the empiricist tradition of Francis Bacon and gave it systematic expression. Locke’s philosophy opposed empirical perception of nature and human being to rational, proceeding from the classical physic research results (Galileo and Newton). Locke criticized Descartes for exaggeration of mind role in perception and for recognition of inborn ideas. There are no intuitive or innate ideas, Locke said, they all are gained from experience, practical life, so human mind is just empty at moment of birth as tabula rasa, a blank plate or sheet upon which experience imprints knowledge. Locke’s empiricism emphasized the importance of sensual experience in pursuit of knowledge rather than intuitive speculation or deduction. Locke reduced all ideas to simple elements of experience, but he also distinguished between two sources of experience: sensation providing knowledge of the external world, and reflection providing knowledge of the mind. Locke greatly influenced the later British skepticism of thought by recognizing the vagueness of the concepts of metaphysics and by pointing out that inferences about the world outside the mind cannot be proved with certainty.
Locke's political views were influenced by historical events of late 17th century England: the Restoration of the Stuart monarchy', the struggle for supremacy between Catholics and Protestants, the Glorious Revolution of William and Mary, the Bill of Rights and Toleration Act of 1689. Locke's most influential political theories are outlined in his “Two Treatises of Government” (1690). The main points of this work are as follows. He attacked Hobbes' theory of divine right of kings and argued that sovereignty did not reside in the state but with the people. He agreed that the state is supreme, but only if it is bound by civil and natural law. Locke developed concepts of inalienable (natural) rights (property rights first of all), the duty of the government to protect these rights, and the rule of the majority. Locke held that popular revolution was not only a right but sometimes an obligation. He advocated a system of checks and balances in government (three independent branches of state power such as parliament, executive and juridical), religious freedom, and the separation of church and state (secularization). Locke's defense of constitutional government, religious tolerance, and natural rights greatly influenced the development of liberal thought in Great Britain, France, and the United States throughout the 18-19th century. Many of his political ideas were used to justify the American and French revolutions and were also embodied in the U.S. Constitution and UNO Declaration.
In ethics, Locke held that all persons are born good, independent, and equal. He was one of the founders of the modern utilitarianism, which makes happiness for the largest possible number of people the standard of judging actions right or wrong. Locke's influence in modern philosophy has been profound: with his application of empirical analysis to ethics, politics, and religion, he remains one of the most important philosophers of all time.
George Berkeley (1685-1753), Irish philosopher and Anglican clergyman), main books “An Essay towards a New Theory of Vision” (1709) and “A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge” (1710), and David Hume (1711-1776), main book “A Treatise of Human Nature” (1739), are generally regarded as the fathers of the modern school subjective idealism and skepticism. In a revolutionary step in the history of philosophy, Hume rejected the basic idea of causation, maintaining that reason can never show the connection of one object with another. According to Hume, no logical justification exists for believing that any two events are causally connected, or for making any inference from past to future. Hume's rejection of causation also implied a rejection of scientific laws, which were based on the determinist premise that one event necessarily causes another and predictably always will. According to Hume, knowledge of matters of fact is impossible; though as a practical matter he acknowledged that people had to think in terms of cause and effect, and had to assume the validity of their perceptions, else they would go mad. Hume's skeptical approach also denied the existence of substance, spiritual or material. He argued that no observable evidence is available for the existence of a mind substance or God. Hume also denied the existence of the individual person, maintaining that because people do not have a constant perception of themselves as distinct entities, they "are nothing but a bundle or collection of different perceptions." In his ethics, Hume held that the concept of right and wrong is not rational but arises from a regard for one's own happiness. According to Hume, the supreme moral good is benevolence, an unselfish desire for the general welfare of society, which he regarded as consistent with individual happiness. As a historian Hume broke away from the traditional chronological account of wars and deeds of state and attempted to describe the economic and intellectual forces that played a part in the history of his country. His “History of England” was regarded as a classic for many years. Hume's contributions to economic theory (which influenced the Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith and later thinkers) included his belief that wealth depends not on money but on commodities and his recognition of the effect of social conditions on economics.
Age of Enlightenment — the 18th Century. The “Age of Enlightenment” is a term used to describe the trends of thought in Europe and the American colonies during the 18th century, prior to the French Revolution of 1789-1799. The precursors of the Enlightenment can be traced to the 17n century philosophers and earlier. The phrase was frequently employed by writers of the period itself, convinced that they were emerging from centuries of darkness and ignorance into a new age enlightened by reason, science, and a respect for humanity. New discoveries in science and the spirit of cultural relativism encouraged by the exploration and colonization of the non-European world were equally important basements of it. Of the basic assumptions and beliefs common to philosophers and intellectuals of this period, perhaps the most important was a faith in the supreme power of human reason. People came to assume that through a judicious use of reason, an unlimited progress in knowledge, in technical achievement, and even in moral values would be possible. They saw the Roman Catholic church and other religions as the principal force that had enslaved the human mind in the past, but most Enlightenment thinkers did not renounce religion altogether.
Many of them opted for Deism, accepting the existence of God and of a hereafter, but rejecting the intricacies of Christian theology. Human aspirations, they believed, should not be centered on the next life, but rather on the means of improving this life. Worldly happiness was placed before religious salvation. Representatives of Deism believed that God exists and is ultimately responsible for the creation of the universe, but does not interfere directly with the created world. Deism accepts God's existence as the cause of all things, and admits its perfection (and usually the existence of natural law and Providence) but rejects divine revelation or direct intervention of God in the universe by miracles. It also rejects revelation as a source of theoretical knowledge and asserts that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of Creator or absolute principle of the Universe.
The Enlightenment was not a set of fixed ideas but an attitude and a method of thought, a desire to reexamine and question all traditional ideas and values, to substitute them with new ideas in all spheres of life and thought. During the first half of the XVIII century, the leaders of the Enlightenment waged an uphill struggle against considerable odds. Several were imprisoned for their writings, and most were hampered by government censorship and attacks by the church. The later decades of the century marked a triumph of the movement in Europe and America. The enormous increase in the publication of newspapers and books ensured a wide diffusion of new ideas. Many proponents of the Enlightenment were not philosophers in the commonly accepted sense of the word; but journalists and propagandists, or even advertisers of new life style. They made full use of pamphlets, anonymous tracts, and the large numbers of new journals and newspapers being created. Following empiricism of Locke, many 18th century writers believed that knowledge is not innate, but comes only from experience and observation guided by reason. Through proper education, humanity nature and life could be changed for the better.
The French Philosophers of Enlightenment. Due to the development of physics, chemistry, biology and medicine, materialism and atheism appeared in France. The main representatives of French Enlightenment were: D. Diderot (1713-1784), P-H. d’Holbach (1723-1789), C. Helvetius (1715-1771), F. Voltaire (1694-1778), J. de La Mettri (1709-1751). They believed that reasonable life’s reconstruction is possible only on basis of science, knowledge, and enlightenment of masses was declared the way to it. They published the first “Encyclopedia” as the code of all scientific knowledge. Historical conditions and the first discoveries of classical physics, especially mechanics, affected their philosophical constructions. They formulated concept of metaphysical, mechanistic materialism. They gave philosophical definition of material substance for the first time (everything, that exists and is perceptible by senses), originated from unity of matter and motion. But as at that time mechanical motion was the most studied, they tried to distribute it to the other spheres of material reality, to functioning of living nature and society. In such a way, La Mettri in his book “Human Being as Machine” contended that human being is a large mechanism, consisting of wheels and pipes and working like a mechanical machine. Finally they produced idea that motion is only possible owing to afflux of external energy and refused recognition of motion as internal attribute of material substance, claiming anti dialectical position. They remained at the idealistic interpretation of society, contending that “the world is ruled by ideas”. In such a way, French enlighteners’ materialistic philosophy was progressive and humanistic, but still had inconsistencies and antagonisms.
Charles Louis de Montesquieu (1689-1755) was a French writer and lawyer. In his “Persian Letters” (1721) Montesquieu satirized contemporary French politics, social conditions, ecclesiastical matters, and literature. Its criticism of French institutions under the Bourbon monarchy helped set the tone for the French Revolution. His second significant work, “Thoughts on the Causes of the Greatness and the Downfall of the Romans” (1734), was one of the first important works in the philosophy of history. His masterpiece, “The Spirit of Laws” (1748), examined the three main types of government: republic, monarchy, and despotism. In it Montesquieu states that a relationship exists between an area's climate, geography, and general circumstances and the form of government that evolves. Montesquieu also held that governmental powers should be separated (into legislative, executive and juridical) and balanced to guarantee individual rights and freedom.
Denis Diderot (1713-1784), the French writer and philosopher, wrote novels, philosophical essays, plays, and was one of the most famous skeptics and rationalists of his age. His first serious work, “Pensees philosophiques” (1746), stated his deist philosophy. His most important work, the controversial 35-volume “Encyclopedie” (1751-1772), was intended both as a compendium of all knowledge and as a polemical weapon, presenting the positions of the Enlightenment and attacking its opponents. Contributors and collaborators in this work included the most celebrated writers of the day, e.g. Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau. Diderot used the “Encyclopedie” as a powerful propaganda weapon against Ecclesiastical authority and the superstition, conservatism, and semi feudal social forms of the time. Consequently, these authors became the objects of substantial clerical and royal antagonism.
Voltaire, the assumed name of Francois Marie Arouet (1694-1778), was a French writer and philosopher, and one of the most famous and influential satirists of the Enlightenment. Beginning his career as a playwright and poet, Voltaire is best known today for his prolific pamphlets, essays, satires, and short novels in which he popularized the science and philosophy of his age; as well as for his immense correspondence with writers and monarchs throughout Europe. Voltaire was most famous for his attacks on ecclesiastical wealth and property, the Church's political power and corruption, and suppression of free thought. Those who suffered persecution because of their beliefs found in Voltaire an eloquent and powerful defender. His attitude towards the Church may be summarized in the expression he often used: "Let us crush the infamous one," referring to any form of religion that constitutes fanaticism. In “Candide” (1759), Voltaire depicted all the evils unleashed upon the world in the name of religion. In his study of human progress, “Essay on General History and on the Customs and the Character of Nations” (1756), Voltaire defied supernaturalism and denounced religion and the power of the clergy, although he made evident his own belief in the existence of God. Further developing the tradition of Deism begun by Locke and other liberal thinkers, Voltaire reduced religious beliefs to those that can be justified by rational evidence from the study of nature. Voltaire's contradictions of character are reflected in his writings. He seemed able to defend either side in any debate, and to some of his contemporaries he appeared distrustful, avaricious and sardonic; others considered him generous, enthusiastic and sentimental. He rejected everything irrational and incomprehensible and called upon his contemporaries to act against intolerance, tyranny, and superstition. His morality was founded on a belief in freedom of thought and respect for all individuals, and he maintained that literature should be useful and concerned with the problems of the day.
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was a French philosopher, social and political theorist, musician, botanist, and one of the most eloquent writers of the Enlightenment. Rousseau criticized civilization as a corruption of humanity's nature and developed Hobbes' doctrine that the state is based on a social contract with its citizens and represents population will. In his “Discourse on the Origin of Inequality among Mankind” (1755), he stated that science, art, and social institutions have corrupted humankind and that the natural, or primitive, lifestyle is morally superior to the civilized one. The persuasive rhetoric of these writings provoked critical comments from Voltaire who attacked Rousseau's views, and subsequently the two philosophers became bitter enemies. In his famous political treatise “The Social Contract” (1762), Rousseau developed a case for civil liberty and helped prepare the ideological background of the French Revolution by defending the concept of “popular will” (general will of population or nation) as the source of state power against divine right (Gods’ blessing of ruler) concept originated in Medieval theology. Although Rousseau contributed greatly to the movement for individual freedom and against the absolutism of church and state, his conception of the state as the embodiment of the abstract will of the people and his arguments for strict enforcement of political and religious conformity are regarded by some historians as a source of totalitarian ideology, first practically applied as revolutionary terror by French radicals of XVIII century and later by fascists and Stalinists of XX century.
In his influential novel “Emile” (1762), Rousseau proposed a new theory of education emphasizing the importance of free expression of children will and inclinations (instead of scholastic repression) to produce a well-balanced, freethinking child. Rousseau's theory of education led to more permissive and more psychologically oriented methods of child care, and influenced later pioneers of modern education. The spirit and ideas of Rousseau's work stand midway between the 18n century Enlightenment, with its passionate defense of reason and individual rights, and early 19th century romanticism, which defended intense subjective experience against rational thought. In his romance “The New Heloise” (1761) and his autobiography “Confessions” (1782), Rousseau introduced a new style of extreme emotional expression. In these works he expressed his concern with intense personal experience, and explored the conflicts between moral and sensual values. Rousseau's writings profoundly influenced romanticism in literature and philosophy in the early 19th century. He also affected the development of the psychological literature, psychoanalytic theory, and the philosophy of existentialism of the 20th century, particularly in his insistence on free will, his rejection of the doctrine of original sin, and his defense of learning through experience rather than analysis.
The Age of Enlightenment is usually said to have ended with the French Revolution of 1789: indeed, some see the social and political ferment of this period as being responsible for the Revolution. While embodying many of the ideals of the philosophers, the Revolution in its more violent stages (1792-94) served to discredit these ideals temporarily in the eyes of many European contemporaries. Yet the Enlightenment left a lasting heritage for the XIX and XX centuries: it marked a key stage in the decline of the church and the growth of modern secularism; it served as the model for political and economic liberalism and for humanitarian reform throughout the XIX century.
XIX Century Philosophy
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), the German philosopher, is considered by many to be the most influential thinker of modern times, as his works laid foundation for German classical philosophy. He constructed a comprehensive system of philosophy that ranks among the greatest intellectual achievements in Western culture. He worked all his life in the University of Königsberg. I. Kant was initially influenced by philosophy of New Time but later started to criticize its mechanistic character. Kant was a famous scientist, naturalist of predominantly materialistic trend. His philosophy is divided into two periods: “sub critical” and “critical”. In his “sub critical” period he put forward two scientific hypotheses: about origin of the solar system from enormous gas nebula (Kant and Laplace astronomical theory) and about influence of the Moon’s position in its orbit to sea high tides. He suggested and tried to argue the idea of nature’s self-development. But natural scientific interests urged Kant to address the critical analysis of the world perception process: that is to trace the perception way, to determine its possibilities (limits), beginning and final results.
Such assignment was dictated by the purpose – to overcome shortcomings of materialism and idealism and to create a single “transcendental philosophy”. This work formed the contents of “critical” period in his philosophy development. Kant started from correct positions, claiming that the material world exists independently of us. But then he divided it into two autonomous worlds: the world of phenomena, perceived with senses and the world of “things in themselves”, which can not be perceived directly. In that way he fell into agnosticism, because he tried to prove that human being is able to perceive only the world of phenomena that is the external side of the things and processes, but he declared the internal world, the world of essences and laws out of cognition ability. But it is only true for a single, initial stage of perception. After all, perceiving phenomena, human being, gradually, in the process of further perception, in practice perceives hidden essences and laws as well, that is he makes “transition” from phenomenon to essence. This Kant’s decision was criticized by idealists “from the right” and by materialists “from the left”.
The keystone of Kant's philosophy is contained in his “Critique of Pure Reason” (1781) in which he examined the bases of human knowledge and created an individual epistemology. It is a distinctive philosophy often referred to as transcendentalism. Kant's epistemology is often described as a compromise between empiricism and rationalism as his solution combined elements of each, the empiricist principle that all knowledge has its source in experience, and the rationalist belief in knowledge obtained by deduction. He suggested that although the content of experience must be discovered through experience itself, the mind imposes form and order on all its experiences, and this form and order can be discovered a priori — that is, by reflection alone. Kant's metaphysical system may be summarized as follows. The mind furnishes the archetypal forms and categories (space, time, causality, substance, and relation) to its sensations, and these categories are logically anterior to experience, although manifested only in experience. Their logical anteriority to experience makes these categories transcendental; they transcend all experience, both actual and possible. Although these categories (or structural principles) determine all experience, they do not in any way affect the nature of things in themselves. The knowledge of which these principles are the necessary conditions of experience must not be considered as constituting a revelation of things as they are in themselves. This knowledge concerns things only insofar as they appear to human perception or as they can be apprehended by the senses. The argument by which Kant sought to fix the limits of human knowledge within the framework of experience constitutes the critical feature of his philosophy; his point was to demonstrate the inability of the human mind to penetrate beyond experience, strictly by knowledge, to the realm of ultimate reality. Kant distinguished between three types of knowledge: analytical a priori — that which is exact and certain, but also uninformative because it makes clear only what is contained in definitions; synthetic a posteriori — that which conveys information about the world learned from experience, but is subject to the errors of the senses; synthetic a priori — that which is discovered by pure intuition and is both exact and certain, for it expresses the necessary conditions that the mind imposes on all objects of experience
In anthropology Kant contended that God gives soul to human being and puts in invariable moral principles in it, so called categorical imperative. Kant's ethical system, described in his “Metaphysics of Ethics” (1797), was based on a belief that reason is the final authority for morality. According to Kant, actions of any sort must be undertaken from a sense of duty dictated by reason, and no action performed for expediency or solely in obedience to law or custom can be regarded as moral. He held that moral principles are categorical imperatives, absolute commands of reason that permit no exceptions and are not related to pleasure or practical benefit. Its essence is as follows: every human being in the society must treat so, as he wants to be treated with. In fact, it meant, do so, that human being and mankind would be only purpose, but not means both for society and state. Human being’s behavior will be virtuous then, when his purpose will be moral perfection and happiness of other people.
In political and social thought Kant was a leading figure of the movement for reason and liberty against tradition and authority. In his “Critique of Practical Reason” (1788) Kant described his belief in the fundamental freedom of the individual. This freedom was not the lawless freedom of anarchy, but rather the freedom of self-government, the freedom to obey consciously the laws of the universe as revealed by reason.
Kant's religious views are stated in his “Religion within the Boundaries of Pure Reason” (1793), which emphasized individual conscience and represented God primarily as a moral ideal. His system also sought to reconcile science and religion in a world of two levels: noumena, those objects conceived by reason although not perceived by the senses, phenomena, things as they appear to the senses and are accessible for material study. Kant maintained that God, freedom, and human immortality are noumenal realities, concepts which are understood through moral faith rather than through scientific knowledge. Thus, Kant’s philosophy turned out to be dual; there were elements of materialism and idealism, dialectics and metaphysics, science and theology in it.
Objective Idealistic Philosophy of Schelling. Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775–1854) is, along with J.G. Fichte and G.W.F. Hegel, one of the three most influential thinkers in the tradition of German idealism and dialectics. Although he is often regarded as a philosophical Proteus who changed his concepts so radically and so often that it is hard to attribute one clear philosophical concept to him, Schelling was in fact often an impressively rigorous logical thinker. In the era during which Schelling was writing, so much was changing in philosophy that a stable, fixed point of view was as likely to lead to a failure to grasp important new developments as it was to lead to a defensible philosophical system. Schelling's continuing importance today relates mainly to three aspects of his work. The first is his “Naturphilosophie” (1797), which, although its empirical claims are largely indefensible, opens up the possibility of a modern hermeneutic view of nature that does not restrict nature's significance to what can be established about it in scientific terms. The second is his anti-Cartesian account of subjectivity, which prefigures some of the best ideas of thinkers like Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Jacques Lacan, in showing how the thinking subject cannot be fully transparent to itself. The third is his later critique of Hegelian Idealism, which influenced Kierkegaard, Marx, Nietzsche, Heidegger, and others, and aspects of which are still echoed in contemporary thought by thinkers like Jacques Derrida.
Schelling's “Identity Philosophy”. Although the period of Schelling's ‘identity philosophy’ is usually dated from the 1801 “Presentation of My System of Philosophy” until sometime before the 1809 On the Essence of Human Freedom, the project of that philosophy can be said to be carried on in differing ways throughout his work. The identity philosophy derives from Schelling's conviction that the self-conscious I must be seen as a result, rather than as the originating act it is in Fichte, and thus that the I cannot be seen as the generative matrix of the whole system. This takes him more in the direction of Spinoza, but the problem is still that of articulating the relationship between the I and the world of material nature, without either reverting to Kantian dualism or failing to explain how a purely objective nature could give rise to subjectivity.
Schelling's mature identity philosophy, which is contained in the “System of the Whole of Philosophy and of Naturphilosophie in Particular”, written in Wurzburg in 1804, and in other texts between 1804 and 1807, breaks with the model of truth as correspondence. It does so because it is clear that in every explanation of the truth as a correspondence of subjectivity and objectivity in knowledge, both, subject and object, are already presupposed as separate, for only what is different can agree, what is not different is in itself one. The crucial problem is how to explain the link between the subject and object world that makes judgments possible, and this cannot be achieved in terms of how a subject can have thoughts which correspond to an object essentially separate from it. For there to be judgments at all what is split and then synthesized in the judgments must, Schelling contends, in some way already be the same. This has often been understood as leading Schelling to a philosophy in which, as Hegel puts it in the Phenomenology, the absolute is the ‘night in which all cows are black’, because it swallows all differentiated knowledge in the assertion that everything is ultimately the same, namely an absolute which excludes all relativity from itself and thus becomes inarticulable. This is not a valid interpretation of Schelling's argument. In an early version of the identity philosophy he had said the following: “For most people see in the essence of the Absolute nothing but pure night and cannot recognize anything in it; it shrinks before them into a mere negation of difference, and is for them something purely privative, whence they cleverly make it into the end of their philosophy. I want to show here how that night of the Absolute can be turned into day for knowledge”.
In order to try to get over the problem in monism of how the One is also the many, Schelling introduced a notion of ‘transitive’ being, which links mind and matter as predicates of itself. Schelling explains this ‘transitivity’ via the metaphor of the earth: “You recognize the earth's true essence only in the link by which it eternally posits its unity as the multiplicity of its things and again posits this multiplicity as its unity. You also do not imagine that, apart from this infinity of things which are in it, there is another earth which is the unity of these things, rather the same which is the multiplicity is also unity, and what the unity is, is also the multiplicity, and this necessary and indissoluble One of unity and multiplicity in it is what you call its existence.” Existence is the link of a being (Wesen) as One, with itself as a multiplicity. 
“Absolute identity” is, then, the link of the two aspects of being, which, on the one hand, is the universe, and, on the other, is the changing multiplicity which the knowable universe also is. Schelling insists now that “I think so I am, is, since Descartes, the basic mistake of all knowledge; thinking is not my thinking, and being is not my being, for everything is only of God or the totality”, so the I is ‘affirmed’ as a predicate of the being by which it is preceded. In consequence he already begins to move away, albeit inconsistently, from the German Idealist model in which the intelligibility of being is regarded as a result of its having an essentially mind-like structure.
Schelling is led to this view by his understanding of the changing and relative status of theoretical knowledge. It is the inherent incompleteness of all finite determinations which reveals the nature of the absolute. His description of time makes clear what he means: “time is itself nothing but the totality appearing in opposition to the particular life of things”, so that the totality “posits or intuits itself, by not positing, not intuiting the particular”. The particular is determined in judgments, but the truth of claims about the totality cannot be proven because judgments are necessarily conditioned, whereas the totality is not. Given the relative status of the particular there must, though, be a ground which enables us to be aware of that relativity, and this ground must have a different status from the knowable world of finite particulars. At the same time, if the ground were wholly different from the world of relative particulars the problems of dualism would recur. As such the absolute is the finite, but we do not know this in the manner we know the finite. Without the presupposition of ‘absolute identity’, therefore, the evident relativity of particular knowledge becomes inexplicable, since there would be no reason to claim that a revised judgment is predicated of the same world as the preceding — now false — judgment.
Schelling summarizes his theory of identity as follows: for being, actual, real being is precisely self-disclosure/revelation (Selbstoffenbarung). If it is to be as One then it must disclose/reveal itself in itself; but it does not disclose/reveal itself in itself if it is not another in itself, and is in this other the One for itself, thus if it is not absolutely the living link of itself and another. 
The link between the ‘real’ and the ‘ideal’ cannot be regarded as a causal link. Although there cannot be mental events without physical events, the former cannot be reduced to being the causal results of the latter: “For real and ideal are only different views of one and the same substance”. Schelling wavers at this time between a ‘reflexive’ position of the kind which Hegel will soon try to articulate, in which, in Schelling's terms, “the sameness of the subjective and the objective is made the same as itself, knows itself, and is the subject and object of itself” in the ‘identity of identity and difference’, and the sense that this position cannot finally circumscribe the structure of the absolute. The structure of reflection, where each aspect reflects itself and then is reflected in the other, upon which this account of the identity of subject and object relies, must be grounded in a being which carries it: reflection only knows the universal and the particular as two relative negations, the universal as relative negation of the particular, which is, as such, without reality, the particular, on the other hand, as a relative negation of the universal. Something independent of the concept must be added to posit the substance as such”. Without this independent basis subject and object would merely be, as Schelling thinks they are in Fichte, relative negations of each other, leading to a circle “inside which nothing gains reality by the relation to another nothing”. Schelling prophetically distinguishes between the cognitive or reflexive ground of finite knowledge and the real (non-reflexive) ground that sustains the movement of negation from one finite determination to another. As a two-sided relationship reflection alone always entails the problem that the subject and the object in a case of reflection can only be known to be the same via that which cannot appear in the reflection. If I am to recognize myself as myself in a mirror, rather than see a random object in the world, I must already be familiar with myself before the reflection, in a way which is not part of the reflection. This means a complete system based on reflection is impossible, because, in order for the system to be grounded, it must presuppose as external to it what it claims is part of it. Schelling will, in his philosophy from the 1820s onwards, raise versions of this objection against Hegel's system.
Schelling's own dissatisfaction with his early versions of identity theory derives from his rejection of Spinoza. Spinoza regards the move from God to the world of ‘conditions’ as a logical consequence of the nature of God. Schelling became convinced that such a theory gives no reason why the absolute, the ‘unconditioned’, should manifest itself in a world of negative ‘conditions’ at all. Schelling is therefore confronted with explaining why there is a transition from the absolute to the finite world, a finite world which he comes to see increasingly in terms of the suffering and tragedy it has to involve. In “Philosophy and Religion” (1804) he claimed, like Jacobi, that there is no way of mediating between conditioned and unconditioned, and already makes the distinction between ‘negative’ and ‘positive’ philosophy, which will form the heart of his late work. Explicating the structure of the finite world leads to “negative philosophy, but much has already been gained by the fact that the negative, the realm of nothingness, has been separated by a sharp limit from the realm of reality and of what alone is positive” The question which comes to concern of Schelling is how philosophy can come to terms with a ground which cannot be regarded as the rational explanation of the finite world, because the finite world involves so much that makes no rational sense.
Schelling’s ‘Ages of the World’ Period. Schelling's work from his middle period (1809–1827) is usually referred to as the philosophy of the “Ages of the World” (WA = Weltalter), after the title of the unfinished work of that name he worked on in the period 1809–1827. The work characteristic of this period begins with the 1809 “On the Essence of Human Freedom” (FS = Freiheitsschrift) (written in Stuttgart). The WA philosophy is an attempt to explain the emergence of an intelligible world at the same time as coming to terms with mind's inextricable relation to matter. The initial concern is to avoid Spinoza's fatalism, which renders the human freedom to do good and evil incomprehensible. Schelling's crucial objection is to the idea that evil should be understood as merely another form of negativity which can be comprehended by insight into the inherent lack in all finite parts of a totality, rather than as a positive fact relating to the nature of human freedom. He now sees the fundamental contradictions of the “Naturphilosophie” in terms of the relationship of the intelligibility of nature and human to a ground without which there could be no intelligibility, but which is not the explicable cause of intelligibility. In an attempt to get to grips with the problem of the ground of the finite world Schelling introduces a Kant-derived conception of ‘willing’ in the FS which will be influential for Schopenhauer's conception of the Will: “In the last and highest instance there is no other being but willing. Willing is primal being, and all the predicates of primal being only fit willing: groundlessness, eternity, being independent of time, self-affirmation”. Schelling now establishes a more conflictive version of the structure of the identity philosophy. The ‘ground’ is ‘groundless’ or ‘uncaused’ and it must be understood in terms of freedom if Spinoza determinism is to be avoided. This means there cannot be an explanation of why there is the finite world, because that would entail taking the ground as a cause and thus rendering freedom non-existent.
At the same time Schelling insists there must be something against which freedom can be manifest, a being which is not free and is therefore necessitated,  for without it freedom will not be meaningful at all. This theory is based on the antagonisms between opposing forces which constitute the ‘ages of the world’, the past, present, and future. He argues that the world whose origins human wishes to understand must entail the same conflicting forces which still act, though not necessarily in the same form, in this world, of which the mind is an aspect: “Poured from the source of things and the same as the source, the human soul has a co-knowledge or con-science (Mitwissenschaft) of creation”. Schelling suggests that there are two principles in human soul: “an unconscious, dark principle and a conscious principle”, which must yet in some way be identical. The same structure applies to what Schelling means by ‘God’. At this point his account of the ground is not consistent, but this inconsistency points to the essential issue Schelling is trying to understand, namely whether philosophy can give a rational account of the fact of the manifest world. As that which makes the world intelligible, God relates to the ground in such a way that the ‘real’, which takes the form of material nature, is ‘in God’ but “is not God seen absolutely, i.e. insofar as He exists; for it is only the ground of His existence, it is nature in God; an essence which is inseparable from God, but different from Him” .The point is that God would be just be some kind of inarticulable, static One if there were not that which He transcends: without opposition, Schelling argues, there is no life and no sense of development, which are the highest aspects of reality. The aim of the move away from Spinoza is to avoid the sense of a world complete in itself which would render freedom illusory because freedom's goal would already be determined as the goal of the totality. Schelling starts to confront the idea that the rational reconciliation of freedom and necessity that had been sought by Kant in the acknowledgement of the necessity of the law, and which was the aim of German Idealism's attempt to reconcile mind and nature, might be intrinsically unattainable.
The “ages of world” philosophy can be interpreted as an ontological theory of predication. Being, as initially One and enclosed within itself, is not manifest, and has no reason to be manifest. The same being must also be, given that there is now a manifest world, be ‘predicative being’, which “flows out, spreads, gives itself”. The contradiction between the two kinds of being is only apparent. Schelling maintains, in line with the identity philosophy, that the “properly understood law of contradiction really says only that the same cannot be as the same something and also the opposite thereof, but this does not prevent the same, which is A, being able, as another, to be not A”. One aspect of being, the dark force which he sometimes terms ‘gravity’, is contractive, the other aspect, which he terms ‘light’, is expansive. Dynamic processes are the result of the interchange between these ultimately identical forces. If they were wholly separate there would either be no manifest universe, because contraction would dominate, or the Universe would dissipate at infinite speed because expansion would dominate. The result would be the same: there would not be a world. If something is to be as something it must both be, in the positive sense in which everything else is, which makes it indeterminately positive, pronominal, and it must have a relationship to what it is not, in order to be determinate, which brings it into the realm of predication by taking it beyond itself. The One comes into contradiction with itself and the two forces constantly struggle with each other. Differences must, however, be grounded in unity, as otherwise they could not be manifest at all as differences. The ground is now increasingly regarded as the source of the transitory nature of everything particular, and less and less as the source of tranquil insight into how we can be reconciled to finite existence. The mood of the “ages of world” is summed up in Schelling's reference to the “veil of melancholy which is spread over the whole of nature, the deep indestructible melancholy of all life”. The source of this melancholy is that everything finite must ‘go to ground’ and that we are aware of this.
The tensions result from contradictions that are also embodied in human beings. The “ages of the world” are constituted by the development of forms and structures in the material and the mental world. This development depends upon the expanding force's interaction with the contracting force's slowing of any expansion, which allows transient but determinate forms to develop. This process also gives rise to language, which Schelling regards as the model for the development of the whole world because it manifests how expansion and the release of tension can lead to intelligibility, rather than mere dissipation: It seems universal that every creature which cannot contain itself or draw itself together in its own fullness, draws itself together outside itself, whence e.g. the elevated miracle of the language as “formation of the word in the mouth” belongs, which is a true creation of the full inside when it can no longer remain in itself. Language as ‘contracted’ material signifier and ‘expanding’ ideal meaning repeats the basic structure of the world, and Schelling insists that, like the material world without the ‘ideal’ capacity for expansion, language can become ‘congealed’. This interaction between what is contained in itself and what draws something beyond itself is also what gives rise to consciousness, and thus to an inherent tension within consciousness, which can only be itself by its relation to another. Hegel uses a related model of subjectivity, but Schelling will come to reject Hegel's model for its failure to confront the ultimately irresolvable tension in all subjectivity. Schelling's later philosophy will present a subject whose origin prevents it from ever achieving the ‘self-presence’ that Hegel tries to explicate by setting out the complete structure of ‘self-reflection’ in the other. Schelling's “ages of the world” philosophy was never completed: its Idealist aim of systematically unifying subject and object by comprehending the real development of history from the very origins of being founders on problems concerning the relationship between philosophical system and historical contingency which do not admit solutions. Furthermore, the structures he developed lead him to ideas which take him beyond Idealism and make him one of the crucial precursors of existential and other non-Idealist forms of modern philosophy. Schelling is usually understood as providing the transitional ‘objective idealist’ link between Fichte and Hegel, but ideas of his later philosophy (1827–1854) directly and indirectly influenced the ideas of thinkers, like Feuerbach, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Heidegger, who were critical of Hegel's claim to articulate a complete philosophical system.
The differences between Hegel and Schelling derive from their respective approaches to understand the Absolute. For Hegel the Absolute is the result of the self-cancellation of everything finite, whose mode of being is precisely to change into something different. Philosophy can therefore articulate the nature of the absolute by an account of how finite determinations are always transcended. This takes the form of the ‘negation of the negation’, in a system whose end comprehends its beginning. For Hegel the result becomes known when the beginning negates itself as being ‘in itself’ to becomes being ‘for itself’ at the end of the system, thus in a process in which it reflects itself to itself by becoming other to itself. Schelling accepts such a conceptionas the way to construct a ‘negative’ system of philosophy, because it explains the logic of change, once there is a world to be explained. The conception does not, though, explain why there is a developing world at all, but merely reconstructs in thought the necessary structure of development on the basis of necessities in thought. Schelling's own attempt at explaining the world's ontological and historical factuality will lead him to a ‘philosophical theology’ which traces the development of mythology and then of Christian revelation in his “Philosophy of Mythology and Philosophy of Revelation”, which, like all his substantial works after 1811, were not published in his lifetime. Schelling insists that human reason cannot explain its own existence, and therefore cannot encompass itself and its other within a system of philosophy. Schelling contends that the identity of thought and being cannot be articulated within thought, because thought must presuppose that they are identical in a way which thought, as one side of a relation, cannot comprehend. Schelling is one of the first philosophers seriously to begin the destruction of the model of metaphysics based on the idea of true representation, a destruction which can be seen as one of the key aspects of modern philosophy from Heidegger to the later Wittgenstein and beyond. He is, at the same time, unlike some of his successors, committed to an account of human reason which does not assume that reason's incapacity to ground itself should lead to an abandonment of rationality. This is one of the respects in which Schelling has again become part of contemporary philosophical debate, where the need to seek means of legitimating which does not rely on the notion of rationality inherent in the world remains a major challenge. Above all, Schelling's account of mind and world, particularly his insistence on the need not to limit our conception of nature to what can be objectified by scientific methods, is, in the light of the ecological crisis, proving to be quite durable.
Objective Idealistic Philosophy of Hegel. Along with J. G. Fichte and F.W.J. von Schelling, G.W.F. Hegel (1770–1831) belongs to the period of “German idealism” in the decades following Kant. G. Hegel criticized metaphysical breakup of the world by Kant into “the world of phenomena” and “the world of essences” and tried to disclose the meaning of philosophy in the cognitive experience of mankind. He was the representative of objective idealism and idealistic dialectics as consistent philosophical system. The principle of identity of matter and consciousness, which becomes apparent in some “absolute idea”, was put at the basis of this system. Under the latter, human mind was implied, but refined from different subjective shortcomings, torn off human being and opposed to him as something supernatural. In this connection Hegel’s thesis “What is reasonable is real, and what is real is reasonable” is well-known. Absolute idea passes through three main stages of its development. At first in discloses itself in “clean form”, that is in itself, then it transforms into form of “different existence” in alienated nature and society and at the third stage – it reaches its highest stage in Hegel’s philosophy, as if returning to its starting point. In other words, cycle comes to the end, passing through three stages of its development. But pay attention to this last notion – development. In the system of Hegel’s philosophy the analysis of universal regularity of development is its “rational seed”. Hegel imagined the whole world’s development as development of spirit, as logic of spiritual mastering the world. On this basis he formulates laws and categories of dialectics as logic of perception. In such a way, Hegel ingeniously guessed right that forms of logic are reflections of the objective world. Despite of all significance of dialectics developed by Hegel, it is still necessary to emphasize deep contradiction of his philosophy: in the framework of idealism, idea of development can not be worked out consistently. Hegel’s philosophical system and its method denied each other. The short list of Hegel’s most important books may include: “First Plan of a System of the Philosophy of Nature”, 1799, “System of Transcendental Idealism”, 1800, “Philosophy and Religion”, 1804, “Lectures on the History of Philosophy”, 1825–6, “Philosophy of Revelation “, 1842, “Phenomenology of Spirit" 1843, “Philosophy of Mind” (Part Three of the “Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences”). The British philosopher F.H.Bradley and then German neo-Hegelian school tried to adapt his ideas to the needs of modern life.
The most systematic of the post-Kantian idealists, Hegel attempted, throughout his published writings as well as in his lectures, to elaborate a comprehensive and systematic ontology from a “logical” starting point. He is perhaps most well-known for his teleological account of history, an account which was later taken over by Marx and “inverted” into a materialist theory of an historical development culminating in communism. For most of the twentieth century, the “logical” side of Hegel's thought had been largely forgotten, but his political and social philosophy continued to find interest and support. However, since the 1970s, a degree of more general philosophical interest in Hegel's systematic thought has also been revived by neo-Hegelians.
Hegel's evaluation of the nature of philosophy is given in the “Preface” to his “Elements of the Philosophy of Right“. “Philosophy,” he said there, “had its own time raised to the level of thought.” On the one hand we can clearly see in the phrase “its own time” the suggestion of an historical or cultural conditions and variability which applies even to the highest form of human cognition, philosophy itself. The contents of philosophical knowledge, we might suspect, will come from the historically changing contents of its cultural context. On the other, there is the hint of such contents being “raised” to some higher level, presumably higher than other levels of cognitive functioning such as those based in everyday perceptual experience, for example, or those characteristic of other areas of culture such as art and religion. This higher level takes the form of conceptually articulated “thought,” a type of cognition commonly taken as capable of having “eternal” contents (ideas of Plato, for example).
This antithetical combination within human cognition of the temporally-conditioned and the eternal, a combination which reflects a broader conception of the human being as what Hegel describes elsewhere as a “finite-infinite,” has led to Hegel being regarded in different ways by different types of philosophical readers. Historically-minded pragmatists like Richard Rorty, distrustful of all claims or aspirations to the “God's-eye view,” could praise Hegel as a philosopher who had introduced this historically reflective dimension into philosophy (and set it on the characteristically “romantic” path) but who had unfortunately still remained bogged down in the remnants of the Platonist idea of the search for non-historical truths. Those adopting such an approach to Hegel tend to have in mind the (relatively) young author of the “Phenomenology of Spirit" and have tended to dismiss as “metaphysical” later and more systematic works like the Science of Logic. In contrast, the British Hegelian movement at the end of the nineteenth century tended to ignore the “Phenomenology” and the more historicist dimensions of his thought, and found in Hegel a systematic metaphysician whose Logic provided a systematic and definitive philosophical ontology. This latter traditional “metaphysical” view of Hegel dominated Hegel reception for most of the twentieth century, but from the 1980s came to be challenged by scholars who offered an alternative “non-metaphysical” and “post-Kantian” view of Hegel. In turn, the post-Kantian reading has been challenged by a revised metaphysical view, in which appeal is often made to Aristotelian conceptual realist features of Hegel's thought. Before surveying these competing views, however, something needs to be said about the confusing term “idealism,” and about the variety of idealism that is characteristic of Hegel and other German idealists.
Hegel’s Dialectical Philosophy and Its Later Interpretations. No philosophical proposition has earned as much gratitude from narrow-minded governments and wrath from equally narrow-minded liberals as Hegel's famous statement: "What is rational is actual and what is actual is rational". That was tangibly a sanctification of all things as they are, a philosophical benediction bestowed upon despotism, the police state, arbitrary justice, and censorship. That was how Prussian monarchy and its subjects understood it. But according to Hegel everything that exists is in no wise also real, without further qualification. For Hegel the attribute of reality belongs only to that which at the same time is necessary "in its development reality proves itself as necessity”. Therefore a particular governmental measure (Hegel himself cites the example of “a certain tax regulation”) is by no means real for him without qualification.
However, that which is necessary proves itself in the last resort to be rational too; and, applied to the Prussian state of that time, the Hegelian proposition, therefore, merely means: this state was rational, corresponded to reason, insofar as it was necessary; and if it nevertheless appears evil to us, but continues to exist in spite of its evil character, then the government's evil character is justified and explained by the corresponding evil character of its subjects. The Prussians of that day had the government they deserved. But according to Hegel reality is in no way an attribute which applies to any given state of affairs, social or political, in all circumstances and at all times. On the contrary, the Roman Republic was real, but so was the Roman Empire which supplanted it. In 1789 the French monarchy had become so unreal, that is to say, so denuded of all necessity, so irrational, that it had to be abolished by the Great Revolution, of which Hegel always speaks with the greatest enthusiasm. In this case, therefore, the monarchy was unreal and the revolution real. Thus in the course of development all that was previously real becomes unreal, loses its necessity, its right to existence, its rationality; a new, viable reality lakes the place of the moribund reality — peacefully if the old is sensible enough to go to its death without a struggle, forcibly if it offers resistance to this necessity. Thus the Hegelian proposition is transformed into its opposite through the Hegelian dialectic itself: All that was real in the domain of human history becomes irrational in the course of time, is therefore already irrational by definition, is infected in advance with irrationality; and everything which is rational in the minds of men is destined to become real, however much it may contradict existing apparent reality. In accordance with all the rules of the Hegelian method of thought, the proposition about the rationality of everything real resolves itself into this other proposition: All that exists deserves to perish.
The true significance and the revolutionary character of the Hegelian lay precisely in the fact that once and for all it dealt the deathblow to the final validity of all products of human thought and activity. For Hegel truth, the cognition of which is the task of philosophy, was no longer a collection of finished dogmatic propositions which, once discovered, had merely to be learned. Truth now lay in the process of cognition itself, in the long historical development of science, which mounts from lower to higher levels of knowledge, but without ever reaching, by discovering some so-called absolute truth, a point at which it can proceed no further and at which it would have nothing more to do than to fold its hands and gaze admiringly at the absolute truth it had attained. What holds good for the realm of philosophical knowledge holds good for every other kind of knowledge and also for practical activity. History of cognition is not able to reach a final conclusion in a perfect, ideal condition of humanity; a perfect society and a perfect state, such the things can only exist in the imagination. On the contrary, every successive historical situation is only a transitory stage in the endless course of development of society from the lower to the higher. Each stage is necessary and therefore justified for the time and conditions to which it owes its origin. But it becomes decrepit and unjustified in the face of new, higher conditions, it must give way to a higher stage which in its turn will also decay and perish. This dialectical philosophy dissolves all concepts of final, absolute truth and absolutely perfect states of humanity corresponding to it. Nothing final, absolute or sacred can endure in-its presence. It reveals the transitory character of everything as nothing can endure in its presence except the very process of becoming and of passing away, of endless ascent from the lower to the higher. Of course, it has a conservative side too: it recognizes that definite stages of knowledge and society are justified for their time and circumstances; but only up to a point. The conservatism of this outlook is relative, its revolutionary character is absolute. 
But what must in fact be said here is that the above exposition is not found with such clarity in Hegel. It is a necessary conclusion from his method, but one which he himself never drew so explicitly. And this, indeed, for the simple reason that he was compelled to build, in accordance with traditional requirements, a system of philosophy which must conclude with some kind of absolute truth. Therefore, however much Hegel emphasizes that this eternal truth is nothing but the logical and historical process itself, he still found himself compelled to supply this process with an end precisely because he must bring his system to an end at some point or other. In his logic he can make this end a beginning again, since here the point of conclusion, the absolute idea (which is only absolute insofar as he has absolutely nothing to say about it) “alienates” or transforms itself into nature and later returns to itself in the mind, in human thought and in history. Such a return to the beginning was possible only in one way. It was made by conceiving the end of history as consisting in mankind's arriving at the knowledge of the absolute idea, which is attained in Hegelian philosophy. But the whole dogmatic content of the Hegelian system is thus declared to be absolute truth, in contradiction with his dialectical method, which dissolves all dogmatism. Thus the revolutionary side is smothered beneath the overgrowth of the conservative side. It was applies to philosophical knowledge and to historical practice both. Mankind, which, in the person of Hegel, has reached the point of working out the absolute idea, must have gotten so far in practice too that it can carry out this absolute idea in reality. Hence the practical political demands of the absolute idea on contemporaries should not be exorbitant. So we find at the conclusion of the Hegelian philosophy, “The absolute idea is to realize itself in that monarchy based on social estates”, which Prussian King Frederick William III so stubbornly but vainly promised to his subjects, that was, in the limited, moderate, indirect rule of the possessing classes suited to the German petty-bourgeois conditions of the time; with, moreover, the necessity of the nobility speculatively demonstrated for readers. Consequently, the inner necessities of the system alone suffice to explain why a thoroughly revolutionary method of thinking produced a very tame political conclusion.
However, none of this prevented the Hegelian system from covering an incomparably greater domain than any earlier system or from developing a wealth of thought in this domain which is astounding even today. The phenomenology of the mind (which one may call a parallel to the embryology and paleontology of the mind, an evolution of the individual consciousness through its different stages, expressed in the form of an abbreviated reproduction of the stages through which the consciousness of man has passed in the course of history), logic, philosophy of nature, philosophy of mind (the latter subdivided in philosophy of history, of right, of religion, history of philosophy, aesthetics, etc.) — in all these different historical fields Hegel discovered and demonstrated the main thread of development. As he was not only a creative genius but also a man of encyclopedic erudition, he played an epoch-making role in every sphere.
It is self evident that owing to the needs of the "system" he quite often had to resort to those forced constructions about which his opponents raise such a terrible din even today. But these constructions are only the frame and scaffolding of his work. With all philosophers it is precisely the "system" which is perishable, just because it springs from an imperishable need of the human mind, the need to overcome all contradictions. But if all contradictions are eliminated once and for all, we shall arrive at so-called absolute truth — world history will have come to an end. Yet it has to continue, although there is nothing left for it to do — hence, a new, insoluble contradiction. As soon as we have realized — and ultimately no one has helped us do so more than Hegel himself— that the task of philosophy thus posed only means that a single philosopher should accomplish what can only be accomplished by the whole human race in its progressive development — as soon as we realize this, there is an end to all philosophy in the hitherto accepted sense of the word. We abandon "absolute truth," which is unattainable along this path or by any single individual, and instead we pursue attainable relative truths along the path of the positive sciences and of the syntheses of their results by means of dialectical thought with Hegel’s philosophy as such comes to an end: on the one hand, because in his system he recapitulates its whole development in the most splendid fashion, and on the other, because he shows us, albeit unconsciously, the way out of this labyrinth of systems to real positive knowledge of the world.
The shortcoming of Hegelian philosophy was clearly detected and criticized by Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872), who reestablished materialistic line in German philosophy by publishing “Essence of Christianity” in 1841. Feuerbach claimed that nature exists independently of any philosophy. It is the foundation upon which we human beings, ourselves the products of nature, have grown up. Nothing exists outside nature and man, and the higher beings created by our religious fantasies are only the fantastic reflection of our own essence. It may be seen from “The Holy Family” how enthusiastically Marx greeted the new approach and how much, in spite of all critical reservations, he was influenced by it. Feuerbach’s philosophy was called anthropological materialism. The philosopher was the first to oppose dual perception of human being, breakup of his soul and body. He contended that human being is indivisible in his nature, there is nothing supernatural in him and human thinking is also natural like all other phenomena of the material world. Philosophical universal subject must be neither spirit, nor nature (in their contraposition), but human being as unity of his corporal and spiritual essence. Philosophy must study human being and so to be anthropology. But Feuerbach himself was not dialectician, he did not notice the positive moment in Hegel’s philosophy. Human being by Feuerbach is a natural creature and people are connected with each other only by natural, biological relations, but not by social or spiritual. In other words, human being does not differ from other animals. Thereby, Feuerbach remained at positions of idealism in understanding social life. Nature and human being were regarded as eternal, unchangeable, not developing. And this is consequence of Feierbach’s denying Hegelian dialectics.
The great basic question of all philosophy, and especially of more recent philosophy, is the relation of thinking and being. From the earliest times when men, who were still completely ignorant of the structure of their own bodies, came to believe under the stimulus of dream apparitions that their thinking and sensation were not activities of their bodies but of a distinct soul which inhabits the body and leaves it at death, men have been driven to reflect about the relation between this soul and the external world. If upon death it took leave of the body and lived on, there was no occasion to ascribe yet another separate death to it. Thus, there arose the idea of its immortality, which appeared at that stage of development as a fate (Fatum) against which nothing could be done, and often enough as a misfortune, for Ancient Greeks and Romans. It was both the religious need for consolation and the quandary arising from the common universal ignorance of what to do with this soul once granting its existence after the death of the body that generally led to the tiresome fiction of personal immortality. The first gods arose from the personification of natural forces. In the subsequent evolution of religions they increasingly assumed an extra-mundane form, until finally by a process of abstraction occurring naturally in the course of man's intellectual development, out of the many more or less limited and mutually limiting gods there arose in the minds of men the idea of the one exclusive God of the monotheistic religions. Thus the question of the relation of thinking to being, of mind to nature, which is the paramount question of philosophy, has, no less than religion, its roots in the narrow-minded and ignorant notions of savagery. But this question could first be posed in all its sharpness and significance only when humanity in Europe awoke from the long hibernation of die Christian Middle Ages. The question of the place of thinking in relation to being, which incidentally had played a great part in medieval scholasticism too, the question, which is primary, mind or nature — this question confronting the church took the pointed form: did God create the world, or has the world been in existence eternally? Philosophers were divided into two great camps according to their answer to this question. Those who asserted the primacy of mind over nature and, in the last analysis, therefore, assumed some kind of creation of the world — and this creation often becomes far more intricate and impossible among the philosophers, for example, Hegel, than in Christianity — formed the camp of idealism. The others, who regarded nature as primary, belonged to the various schools of materialism.
But the question of the relation of thinking and being has yet another aspect. In what relation do our thoughts about the world surrounding us stand to this world itself? Is our thinking capable of knowing the real world? Are we able to produce a correct reflection of reality in our ideas and notions of the real world? In philosophical language this question is called the question of the identity of thinking and being, and the overwhelming majority of philosophers answer it affirmatively. With Hegel, for example, its affirmation is self-evident; for what we know in real world is precisely its content conforming to thought — that which makes the world a gradual realization of the absolute idea, which absolute idea has existed somewhere from eternity, independently of and prior to the world. But it was manifested without further proof that thought can know a content which is already in advance of thought. It was equally manifested that what is to be proved here is already tacitly contained in the premise. But that in no way prevented Hegel from drawing the further conclusion from his proof of the identity of thinking and being that his philosophy, because it is correct for his thinking, is therefore also the only correct one, and that the identity of thinking and being must prove its validity by mankind's immediately translating his philosophy from theory into practice and transforming the whole world according to Hegelian principles. This was an illusion he shared with most of all philosophers. In addition there was a set of different philosophers who denied the possibility of any realistic knowledge, or at least of an exhaustive knowledge, of the world. There belong Hume and Kant. What is decisive in the refutation of this view was said by Hegel, insofar as it was possible from an idealist standpoint; what Feuerbach has added from a materialist standpoint is more ingenious than profound. The most telling refutation of his as of all other philosophical crotchets is practice, namely, experiment and industry. If we are able to prove the correctness of our understanding of a natural process by making it ourselves, producing it from its preconditions and making it serve our own purposes, then it is all over with the Kantian ungraspable "thing-in-itself." The chemical substances produced in the bodies of plants and animals remained such "things-in-themselves" until organic chemistry began to produce them one after another; whereupon the "thing-in-itself' became a thing-for-us, as, for instance, alizarin, the coloring matter of madder, which we no longer trouble to grow in the madder roots in the field, but produce much more cheaply and simply from coal tar. For three hundred years the Copernican solar system was a hypothesis with a hundred, a thousand or ten thousand chances to one in its favor, but still always a hypothesis. But when Leverrier, by means of the data provided by this system, not only deduced the necessity of the existence of an unknown planet, but also calculated the position in the heavens which this planet must necessarily occupy, and when was really found this planet, the Copernican system was proved. If, nevertheless, the Neo-Kantians are attempting to resurrect the Kantian approach in Germany and the agnostics that of Hume in England (where it never died out), this is scientifically a retrogression and practically just a shamefaced way of surreptitiously accepting materialism while publicly denying it, since they were refuted both theoretically and practically a long time ago,
The Marxist Philosophy. Materialistic trend of philosophy was continued by K. Marx (1818-1883) and F. Engels (1820-1895), the founders of Marxist philosophy, which was initially just the attempt to overcome shortcomings of classical German philosophy. It combines philosophical and social-economical teaching, which considerably influenced the events of the XIX-XX centuries. The assignment of connecting materialism and dialectics in single materialistic dialectics, performed by Marx and Engels, is of primary importance for development of philosophy. Feuerbach and Hegel developed materialism and dialectics in absolute autonomy from each other, as materialism was an attribute of nature and dialectics was an attribute of absolute spirit. Marx and Engels cleared these philosophical components off their inherent shortcomings and narrow-mindedness and united them in single philosophical system. Laws of materialistic dialectics are general laws of functioning and development of nature, society and human thinking.
Main books of Marxism. Marx: “Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right (1843)”, “On the Jewish Question” (1843), “Notes on James Mill” (1844), “Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844” (1844), “Theses on Feuerbach” (1845), “The Poverty of Philosophy” (1845), “Wages, Labor and Capital” (1847), “The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte” (1852), “Grundrisse” (1857), “Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy” (1859), “Theories of Surplus Value”, 3 volumes (1862), “Value, Price and Profit” (1865), Capital vol. 1 (1867), “The Civil War in France” (1871), “Critique of the Gothic Program” (1875), “Notes on Wagner” (1883). Marx and Engels: “The German Ideology” (1845), “The Holy Family” (1845), “Manifest of the Communist Party” (1848), “Writings on the U.S. Civil War” (1861), “Capital”, vol. 2 [posthumously, published by Engels] (1893), “Capital”, vol. 3 [posthumously, published by Engels] (1894). Engels: “The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844” (1844), “The Peasant War in Germany” (1850), “Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Germany” (1852), “Socialism: Utopian and Scientific” (1880), “Dialectics of Nature” (1883), “Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State” (1884), “Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy” (1886).
Dialectical materialism is the philosophical basis of Marxism. It was a synthesis of both Hegel's dialectics and Ludwig Feuerbach's philosophical materialism, and is most directly traced to Marx's fellow thinker, Friedrich Engels. It uses the concepts of thesis, antithesis and synthesis to explain the both natural world evolution and humanity history. For formal approaches, the main predication of dialectical opposition or contradiction must be understood as 'some sense' opposition between the objects involved in a directly associated context. 'Dialectical contradiction' is not reducible to simple 'opposites' or 'negation'.
Some Marxist theorists, critical of dialectical materialism, have called for a reassessment of the place of Engels' work “Dialectics of Nature” in the Marxist canon. They note that the term "dialectical materialism" originates with Russian theorist George Plekhanov and that Marx preferred the term "the materialist concept of history", which was later shortened to "historical materialism" by Engels. This, they argue, limits his method within a specifically human, sociological context, distinguishing it from a universalizing theory. And apart from the historical materialists, other thinkers in Marxist philosophy have had recourse to the original texts of Marx and Engels and have created other Marxist philosophical projects and concepts which are alternatives, and sometimes rivals, to the communist parties sponsored ideas of "diamat" (an abbreviation for "dialectical materialism"). While dialectical materialism was traditionally associated almost exclusively with Marxism, some claim that the philosophy is applicable to a non-Marxist worldview as well.
Materialism. Materialism answers the fundamental ontological question of philosophy (what is the primary element of world structure?) by asserting the primacy of the material world over ideal: in short, matter precedes thought. Materialism holds that the world is material, that all phenomena in the Universe consist of matter (material substance) in motion, that all things are interdependent and interconnected and develop in accordance with natural laws, that the world exists outside humans and independently of human perception of it, that thought is a reflection of the material world in the human brain, and that the true knowledge of world is principle gain able. "The ideal is nothing else than the material world reflected by the human mind and translated into forms of thought." —Karl Marx, Capital, Vol. 1.
Dialectics. Dialectics is the philosophical teaching about most general and abstract laws of the development of nature, society and thought. Its principal features are the following. The Universe is not a disconnected mix of things isolated from each other, but an integral whole, with the things interdependent. The natural world or Universe is in a state of constant motion: "All nature, from the smallest thing to the biggest, from a grain of sand to the sun, from the one-cellular beings to man, is in a constant state of coming into being and going out of being, in a constant flux, in a ceaseless state of movement and change" — Friedrich Engels, Dialectics of Nature. Development is a process where insignificant and imperceptible quantitative changes lead to fundamental, qualitative changes. The latter occur not gradually, but rapidly and abruptly, in the form of a leap from one state to another. A simple example from the physical world might be the heating of water: a one degree increase in temperature is a quantitive change, but at 100 degrees there is a qualitative change of water to steam. "Merely quantitative differences, beyond a certain point, pass into qualitative changes." —Karl Marx, Capital, Vol. 1. All things contain within themselves internal dialectical contradictions, which are the primary cause of motion, change and development in the world.
The three laws of dialectics are: the law of the unity and conflict of opposites; the law of the passage of quantitative changes into qualitative changes; the law of the negation of the negation.
Practical activity results are the main criteria of knowledge true character and the main source of knowledge. "The question whether objective truth can be attributed to human thinking is not a question of theory but is a practical question. Man must prove the truth, i.e., the reality and this worldliness of his thinking in practice." — Karl Marx, Theses on Feuerbach.
Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818 Trier, Germany - March 14, 1883 London) was an immensely influential German philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary. While Marx addressed a wide range of issues, he is most famous for his analysis of history in terms of class struggles. While Marx was a relatively obscure figure in his own lifetime, his ideas began to exert a major influence on workers' movements shortly after his death. This influence was given added impetus by the victory of the Marxist Bolsheviks in the Russian October Revolution, and there are few parts of the world which were not significantly touched by Marxian ideas in the course of the twentieth century. The relation of Marx's own thought to the popular "Marxist" interpretations of it during this period is a point of controversy. While Marx's ideas have declined somewhat in popularity, particularly with the decline of Marxism in Russia, they are still very influential today, both in academic circles and in political practice, and Marxism continues to be the official ideology of numerous states and political movements.
Marx's philosophy was primarily concentrated on human nature and society development. Along with the Hegelian dialectic, Marx inherited a disdain for the notion of an underlying invariant human nature. Sometimes Marxists express their views by contrasting "nature" with "history". Sometimes they use the phrase "existence precedes consciousness" (later inherited by XX century philosophy of existence). The point, in either case, is that who a person is, is determined by where and when he is. Social context takes precedence over innate behavior; or, in other words, one of the main features of human nature is adaptability. Nevertheless, Marxian thought rests on the fundamental assumption that it is human nature and fate to transform nature. He calls this process of transformation "labor" and the capacity to transform nature labor power. For Marx, this is a natural capacity for a physical activity, but it is intimately tied to the human mind and human imagination: “A spider conducts operations that resemble those of a weaver, and a bee puts to shame many an architect in the construction of her cells, but what distinguishes the worst architect from the best of bees is this, that the architect raises his structure in imagination before he erects it in reality” (Capital, Vol. I, Chapter 7, Pt. 1).
Marx did not believe that all people worke the same way, or that how one works is entirely personal and individual. Instead, he argued that work is a social activity and that the conditions and forms of it are socially determined and change over time. Marx's analysis of history is based on his distinction between the means and forces of production, literally those things, such as land, natural resources, and technology, that are necessary for the production of material goods, and the relations of production, in other words, the social and technical relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means of production. Together these comprise the mode of production. Marx observed that within any given society the mode of production changes, and that European society had progressed from a feudal mode of production to a capitalist mode of production. In general, Marx believed that the means of production change more rapidly than the relations of production (for example, humans first develop a new technology, such as the Internet, and only later do society develop laws to regulate that technology). For Marx this mismatch between (economic) base and (social) superstructure is a major source of social disruption and conflict. Marx understood the "social relations of production" to comprise not only relations among individuals, but between or among groups of people, the largest of which are classes. As a scientist and materialist, Marx did not understand classes as purely subjective (in other words, groups of people who are consciously identified with one another). He sought to define classes in terms of objective criteria, such as their position in social structure, first of all access to resources and tools for labor and products of labor. For Marx, different classes have divergent interests, which is another source of social disruption and conflict. Conflict between social classes is inherent in all human history: “The history of all existing society is the history of class struggles” (The Communist Manifesto, Chap. 1).
Marx was especially concerned with how people relate to that most fundamental resource of all, their own labor-power. Marx wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of alienation. Marx began with a Hegelian dialectic notion of alienation but developed a more materialist conception. For Marx, the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own labor, one's capacity to transform the world, is tantamount to being alienated from one's own nature; it is a spiritual loss. Marx described this loss in terms of commodity fetishism, in which the things that people produce, commodities, appear to have a life and movement of their own to which humans and their behavior merely adapt. This disguises the fact that the exchange and circulation of commodities really are the product and reflection of social relationships among people. Under capitalism, social relationships of production, such as among workers or between workers and capitalists, are mediated through commodities, including labor, which are bought and sold on the market. 
Commodity fetishism is an example of what Engels called false consciousness, which is closely related to the understanding of ideology. By ideology they meant ideas that reflect the interests of a particular class at a particular time in history, but which are presented as universal and eternal. Marx and Engels' point was not only that such beliefs are at best half-truths; they serve an important political function. Put another way, the control that one class exercises over the means of production includes not only the production of food or manufactured goods; it includes the production of ideas as well (this provides one possible explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own interests). Thus, while such ideas may be false, they also reveal in coded form some truth about political relations. For example, although the belief that the things people produce are actually more productive than the people who produce them is literally absurd, it does reflect the fact (according to Marx and Engels) that people under capitalism are alienated from their own labor-power. Another example of this sort of analysis is Marx's understanding of religion, summed up in a passage from the preface to his “Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right” (1843): “Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people”. Whereas his Gymnasium senior thesis argued that the primary social function of religion was to promote solidarity, here Marx sees the social function as a way of expressing and coping with social inequality, thereby maintaining the status quo.
Marx and Engels developed fundamentals of social philosophy on basis of materialistic dialectics and materialistic understanding of human society’s development, first of all materialistic analysis of social processes of the first half of XIX century. One of the consequences of such understanding was social and political teaching of Marxism about necessity of revolutionary transition from capitalism to communism, performing by the working class. The elements of social utopias of XVII-XVIII centuries survived in this teaching, and moreover they were applied in social practice of the XX century (experience of building “state socialism” in the USSR, China and other countries). It is necessary to point out that economical analysis of society, made by Marx in “the Capital”, on the whole, did not lose its scientific significance. It can be said that philosophy of dialectical materialism is a qualitatively new stage in the development of philosophy. But it is also not correct to overestimate it like any other philosophical systems. It needs to be developed further, taking into account the results of scientific perception and social processes of the XX and XXI century.
Control Tasks and Questions
1. Describe the main ideas and representatives of rationalist philosophy of Age of Reason.
2. Describe the main ideas and representatives of empiricist philosophy of Age of Reason.
3. Describe the main ideas and representatives of Enlightenment philosophy.
4. Which method of research was the main for representatives of rationalist philosophy?
5. Which method of research was the main for representatives of empiric philosophy?
6. Who was the author of concept of independent branches of state power?
7. Name the main representatives of German classical philosophy.
8. Describe the main ideas of I.Kant philosophy.
9. Describe the main ideas of Schelling and Hegel philosophy.
10. Characterize the main specific features of dialectical materialism and its impact on modern science development.
11. Name and describe 3 laws of dialectics.
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
1. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy / B. Russell. – New York : Simon and Schuster, 1961. – 837 p.
2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martin’s Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. Cohen C. Four Systems/ C. Cohen. –  New York : Random House, 1982. – 168 p.
5. Connell D. Essays in Metaphysics / D. Connell. – Dublin : Four Courts Press, 1996. – 232 p.
6. Hegel's Preface to the Phenomenology of Spirit, translation and running commentary by Yirmiyahu Yovel, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2005.
7. Hegel's Philosophy of Mind: Being Part Three of the Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences, trans. William Wallace, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971.
8. Hegel: Lectures on the History of Philosophy, 1825–6, three volumes, ed. and trans. Robert F. Brown, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006–9.
9. Hume D. A Treatise of Human Nature/ D. Hume. – Oxford: O.U.P., 1951. – 338 p.
10. Kant I. Critique of Pure Reason [Ed. by N. Kemp-Smith] / I. Kant. – University of Alberta, 1929. – 124 p.
11. Locke J. Two Treatises of Government / J. Locke. New York :  G. Routledge, 1963. – 591 p.
12. Phenomenology of Spirit, trans. A. V. Miller, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977.
13. Safranski R. Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy / R. Safranski. – Harvard : Harvard University Press, 1990. – 404 p.
14 Sallis J. Deconstruction and Philosophy / J. Sallis. – Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1987. – 207 p.
15. Strauss L. History of Political Philosophy/ L. Strauss, J. Cropsey. Chicago, London : The University of Chicago Press, 1987. – 966 p.
16. System of Transcendental Idealism, translated by P. Heath, introduction M. Vater, Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978.
17. The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy, trans. H. S. Harris and W. Cerf, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1977.

Part 5. Modern Philosophy
XX and XXI century non classical and post classical philosophy can be divided into many schools of thought: philosophy of existence, psychoanalytical philosophy, positivist or analytic philosophy, pragmatism, neo Marxism, philosophy of biosphere and noosphere, technocratic and anti technocratic philosophy and so on. It is characterized by great diversity of philosophical schools and great number of philosophical problems under analysis. Many of them are influenced by development of science including medicine. It is important to point out, that as before, there are dominant antitheses of rationalism and irrationalism, materialism and idealism, liberalism and totalitarianism in modern philosophy.
Along with recognition of mind role in the world perception, it is often substituted by feelings, emotions, intuition and will as irrational forms of perception. Irrationalism limits perceptible possibilities of mind and recognizes belief, feelings, instinct or intuition as main basis of human perception. Let’s consider two main trends of irrational philosophy are directly connected with medicine. One of them is existentialism. Its name originates from French “existencia” – existence (of human being’s personality). Idea of existence of human personality as only true reality is inherent for all kinds of existentialism. This existence is the beginning and the end of any knowledge (first of all, philosophical). First, human being exists, thinks, feels, suffers, and only then he defines himself in the world. Human being himself defines his essence, which is unstable and so out of cognition. Human thought describes the world as rational, in which there are certain general laws of the world history and culture. However, in reality the world could be absurd, strange and senseless like human being’s life. Human existence is rather often a drama or tragedy (especially in case of great social conflicts and transformations which were typical for XX century). And so humans unavoidably make their individual choices which both constitute and transform the very essence of their existence. Human being is alone in his feelings and sufferings, he is dropped off in this absurd world and he must change both the world and himself. Designation of philosophy in these conditions is to help human being in realizing his place in the world, understanding importance of love and care, reaching freedom and learning to be himself. Human being can perceive his true essence and individual specific features only in crisis situations: during illness, before death, in the moments of risk, war, fear, social disconnection. Sense of life is only in the sphere of freedom, in the sphere of free taking of risk and personal responsibility for actions results. It is the essence of human being’s existence. Existentialism made studying of human internal emotional world in those crisis situations, which urge person to make choice, to be main object of philosophical research. Thus, it studies such human being’s conditions of soul, which are studied in theoretical medicine (psychiatry, medical ethics and so on) and are used in medical practice, which must perceive changes of human being’s essence caused by his illness, fear of death, etc. Positive decision of these problems is only possible by taking into account human being’s sociality and social essence, and not reducing him to only biological individual, who experiences his existence. The main representatives of existentialism are: Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), M. Heidegger (1889-1976), C. Jaspers (1882-1969, also psychiatry specialist), P. Sartre (1905-1980), A. Camus (1913-1960), Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973, author of the notion of existentialism), S. de Beauvoir (1908-1986), M. Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961), N. Berdyaev (1874-1948), L. Shestov (1866-1938) and others. 
The second trend is psychoanalytical philosophy, the first representative of which was Austrian doctor Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). The main books of Freud were “The Interpretation of Dreams” (1899), “The Psychopathology of Everyday Life” (1904), “Totem and Taboo: Resemblances between the Psychic Lives of Savages and Neurotics” (1913), “Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis” (1915-1917), “Beyond the Pleasure Principle” (1920), “Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego” (1921), “The Ego and the Id” (1923), “Civilization and Its Discontents” (1930). His philosophical conclusions he obtained from his psychiatric practice, which reveals the facts of human being’s behavior regulation by unconscious components of his psyche. Human being’s psyche has two levels of functioning: the lower one is unconscious (reflexes, instincts) and the upper level is conscious (conscious decisions, feelings and actions). It is correct that they influence each other, but Freud claimed absolute, overestimated influence of unconscious and almost completely ignored the role of consciousness in human being’s activity and depicted human being as a slave, a toy of blind instincts and unconditioned reflexes (sexual, hunger, death avoidance and self-preservation). Freud’s activity value is that he found out role of psyche in human being’s life and developed the method of psychoanalysis for clearing up etiology of a number of human being’s psychiatric illnesses. But he opposed unconscious sphere of psyche to its conscious component, to moral and social culture, in which the laws of communication of people are stated as results of human society development. Really, there exists antagonism between human being’s natural beginnings (sexual and aggressive impulses) and culture with its ideals and norms, which suppress or transform wishes, evoked by unconscious beginnings. Methodology of psychoanalysis demanded admitting social phenomena origination only from the positions of unconscious mechanisms, which are really considerable in the basis of religious, art and moral phenomena. But it is impossible and unscientific to explain all displays of human being’s activity, its valuable-conscious level on the basis of psychoanalysis.
Freud's psychoanalytic system was dominant in psychology in the early twentieth century, forming the basis for many later variants. While these systems have adopted different theories and techniques, all have followed Freud by attempting to achieve psychic and behavioral change through having patients talk about their difficulties. Psychoanalysis was most influential in Europe and the United States, though in some parts of the world, notably Latin America, its influence in the later 20th century expanded substantially. Psychoanalysis also remains influential within many contemporary schools of psychotherapy and has led to innovative therapeutic work in schools and with families and groups. There is a body of research findings which support the efficiency of psychodynamic therapies in treating a wide range of psychological disorders.
The neo-Freudians, a group including Alfred Adler (1870-1937), Erich Fromm (1900-1980), Otto Rank, Karen Horney and Harry Stack Sullivan, rejected Freud's theory of instinctual drive, emphasized interpersonal relations and self-assertiveness, and made modifications to therapeutic practice that reflected these theoretical shifts. Neo-Freudian analysis places more emphasis on the patient's relationship with the analyst or another medicine man and less on exploration of the unconscious. E. Fromm had argued that several aspects of psychoanalytic theory served the interests of political reaction in his book “The Fear of Freedom” (1942). Philip Rieff in “Freud: The Mind of the Moralist” (1959) portrayed Freud as a man who urged men to make the best of an inevitably unhappy fate, and admirable for that reason. Herbert Marcuse challenged the prevailing interpretation of Freud as a conservative in “Eros and Civilization” (1955), as did Lionel Trilling in “Freud and the Crisis of Our Culture” and Norman O. Brown in “Life against Death” (1959). Marcuse criticized neo-Freudian revisionism for discarding seemingly pessimistic theories such as the death instinct, arguing that they could be turned in a Marxist social philosophy direction. Fromm called Freud, Marx, and Einstein the "architects of the modern age", but argued that Marx was both far more historically important and a finer thinker. Fromm nevertheless credits Freud with permanently changing the way human nature is understood.
Viktor Frankl (1905–1997) was an Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist, the founder of logotherapy as “a form of psychotherapy existential analysis”. His book “Man's Search for Meaning” (published under a different title in 1959: “From Death-Camp to Existentialism”) chronicles his experiences as Nazi concentration camp inmate, which led him to discover the importance of finding meaning in all forms of existence, even the most brutal ones, and thus, a reason to continue living. Frankl became one of the key figures in existential therapy and a prominent source of inspiration for humanistic psychologists. He described “crisis of values” as main problem of modern life.
Carl Jung (1875-1961), a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. Among the central concepts of analytical psychology is individuation — the lifelong psychological process of differentiation of the self out of each individual's conscious and unconscious elements. Jung considered it to be the main task of human development. He created some of the best known psychological concepts, including synchronicity, archetypal phenomena, the collective unconscious, the psychological complex, and extraversion and introversion. His work has been influential in not only psychiatry but also anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy, and religious studies. The main books of Jung are: “Psychology of the Unconscious” (1912), “Psychological Types” (1921), “Modern Man in Search of a Soul” (1933), “Psychology and Religion” (1938), “Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self” (1951), “Answer to Job” (1954,)“Memories, Dreams, Reflections” (1961), “Analytical Psychology: Its Theory and Practice” (1963). The major concepts of analytical psychology developed by Jung include the next. Jung believed that the collective unconscious, which reflects the cosmic order and the history of the human species, is the most important part of the mind. It contains archetypes, which are manifested in symbols that appear in dreams, disturbed states of mind, and various products of culture. Archetype is a concept "borrowed" from anthropology to denote supposedly universal and recurring mental images or themes. Jung's definitions of archetypes varied over time and have been the subject of debate as to their usefulness. Archetypal images are universal symbols that can mediate opposites in the psyche, often found in religious art, mythology and fairy tales across cultures. Psychological complex is the repressed organisation of images and experiences that governs perception and behaviour. Extraversion and introversion are personality traits of degrees of openness or reserve contributing to psychological type. Shadow is the repressed, therefore unknown, aspects of the personality including those often considered to be negative. Collective unconscious is collection of aspects of unconsciousness experienced by all people in the same culture. Self is the psyche's central archetype and overarching concept governing the individuation process, securing its totality and unity. Individuation is the process of fulfilment of each individual "which negates neither the conscious or unconscious position but does justice to them both". Synchronicity is a non causal principle which forms a basis for the apparently random simultaneous occurrence of phenomena. Jungians are less interested in infantile development and psychological conflict between wishes and the forces that frustrate them than in integration between different parts of the person. The object of Jungian therapy was to mend such splits. Jung focused in particular on problems of middle and later periods of life. His objective was to allow people to experience the split-off aspects of themselves, such as the anima (a man's suppressed female self), the animus (a woman's suppressed male self), or the shadow (an inferior self-image), and thereby attain wisdom.
In psychological theory of Jung, which is not linked to any particular theory of social structure, the person appears as a consciously created personality or identity, fashioned out of part of the collective psyche through socialization, acculturation and experience. Jung applied the term persona, explicitly because, in Latin, it means both personality and the masks worn by Roman actors of the classical period, expressive of the individual roles played. The persona, he argues, is a mask for the "collective psyche", a mask that 'pretends' individuality, so that both self and others believe in that identity, even if it is really no more than a well-played role through which the collective psyche is expressed. Jung regarded the "persona-mask" as a complicated system which mediates between individual consciousness and the social community: it is "a compromise between the individual and society as to what a man should appear to be". But he also makes it quite explicit that it is, in substance, a character mask in the classical sense known to theatre, with its double function: both intended to make a certain impression on others, and to hide (at least partially) the true nature of the individual. The therapist then aims to assist the individuation process through which the client (re)gains their "own self" – by liberating the self, both from the deceptive cover of the persona, and from the power of unconscious impulses. Jung's theory has become enormously influential in management theory; not just because managers and executives have to create an appropriate "management persona" (a corporate mask) and a persuasive identity, but also because they have to evaluate what sort of people the workers are, in order to manage them (for example, using personality tests and peer reviews).
Positivist Philosophy (from which originated all the philosophy of science) summarizes the achievement of specific or a generic classification of all sciences. Positivism as a philosophical trend based on the principle: true knowledge is achieved only as a result of some specific sciences. Cognition, in terms of positivism must be freed from any philosophical interpretation. Philosophy should be repealed and replaced by concrete or direct teachings or the teachings of the relationship between science, their logical structure, language and so on. 
The very first ideas of positivism were consonant with the ideas of English philosophers John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) and Auguste Comte (1798-1857). The views of the past became the primary form of positivist philosophy, which they called "the first positivism”. At the end of XIX century, ideas of first positivism representatives were developed by Ernst Mach (1838-1916) and Richard Avenarius (1843-1896) into second wave of positivism, named empiriocriticism and French conventionalism (Henri Poincaré and Pierre Duhem). Then during 20-30's of XX century neo-positivism was developed by “the third wave” school of of "Vienna Circle" represented by Moritz Schlick (1882-1936), Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970), Otto Neurath (1882-1945), Philipp Frank (1884-1966), quite close to them analytic philosophy of Gottlob Frege (1848-1925), Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932), Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), George Moore (1873-1958), Alfred Whitehead (1861-1947), Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) and others. It was followed later by American school of first "logical empiricism" in 40-50-60's of XX century and at last by “the fourth wave” of post – positivism of Karl Popper (1902-1994). Analytic philosophy is one of most important parts of positivism and it can be further divided into three schools: logical positivism, linguistic analysis, and logical empiricism. The association between these three analytic schools was based on shared ideas of the individuals and groups involved.
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), Austrian-British philosopher, was one of the most influential thinkers of the 20th century, who is celebrated for his contributions to the movement known as analytic and linguistic philosophy. His early work was influenced by ideas of Arthur Schopenhauer, Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell. This work culminated in the “Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus” (1922), the only philosophical book that Wittgenstein published during his lifetime. It claimed to solve all the major problems of philosophy and was held in especially high esteem by the anti-metaphysical logical positivists. The “Tractatus” is based on the idea that philosophical problems arise from misunderstandings of the logic of language, and it tries to show what this logic is. He argued that "philosophy aims at the logical clarification of thoughts". By 1949 he had written all the material that was published after his death as “Philosophical Investigations” in 1953, arguably his most important work where he maintained that "philosophy is a battle against the bewitchment of our intelligence by means of language". “Philosophical Investigations” shared the concern with logic and language, but took a different, less technical, approach to philosophical problems. This book helped to inspire so-called ordinary language philosophy. This style of doing philosophy has fallen somewhat out of favor, but Wittgenstein’s work on rule-following and private language is still considered important in a number of fields outside philosophy. His work from his last years had been published as “On Certainty” posthumously.
Wittgenstein had a lifelong interest in religion and claimed to see every problem from a religious point of view, but never committed himself to any formal religion. He often spoke of ethics and religion together. This point of view or attitude can be seen in the four main themes that run through Wittgenstein’s writings on ethics and religion: goodness, value or meaning are not to be found in the world; living the right way involves acceptance or agreement with the world, or life, or God’s will, or fate; one who lives this way will see the world as a miracle; there is no answer to the problem of life as the solution is the disappearance of the problem. Wittgenstein wants his reader not to think too much about theoretical problems but to look at the “language games” (any practices that involve language) that give rise to philosophical (personal, existential, spiritual) problems. His ethical attitude is an integral part of his method and shows itself as such. Wittgenstein wrote: “Rules of life are dressed up in pictures. And these pictures can only serve to describe what we are to do, not justify it. Because they could provide a justification only if they held good in other respects as well”. In a world of contingency one cannot prove that a particular attitude is the correct one to take. Wittgenstein is often considered a representative of relativism and anti-realism, as he opposed interpretations of religion that emphasize doctrine or philosophical arguments intended to prove God’s existence, but he was greatly drawn to religious rituals and symbols. He wrote that relativism is just one more attitude or point of view, and one without the rich tradition and accumulated wisdom, philosophical reasoning and personal experience of, say, orthodox Christianity or Judaism, so for him crude relativism is self - contradictory.
Throughout most of his life, however, Wittgenstein consistently viewed philosophy as linguistic analysis with its focus on language and "language games." Major themes put forth in the “Tractatus Logico-philosophicus” may be summarized as follows. Language is composed of complex propositions that can be analyzed into less complex propositions until one arrives at simple or elementary propositions. Correspondingly, the world is composed of complex facts that can be analyzed into less complex facts until one arrives at simple "atomic facts." The world is the totality of these facts. His most famous proposition was “What we cannot speak about we must pass over in silence.”
He claimed that the nature of language required elementary propositions, and his theory of meaning required that there be atomic facts pictured by the elementary propositions. According to Wittgenstein’s picture theory of meaning, it is the nature of elementary propositions to logically picture atomic facts, or "states of affairs." On this analysis, only propositions that picture facts, the propositions of science, are considered cognitively meaningful. Metaphysical, ethical and theological statements are not meaningful assertions. These themes echoed Bertrand Russell’s theory of logical atomism and greatly influenced the logical positivists and other followers of linguistic analysis.
In the later years Wittgenstein came to believe, however, that the narrow view of language reflected in the “Tractatus” was mistaken. The new principles outlined in “Philosophical Investigations” may be summarized as follows. Words are like tools, and just as tools serve different functions, so linguistic expressions serve many functions. Some propositions are used to picture facts, but many others do not. Recognition of this linguistic flexibility led Wittgenstein to the conclusion that people play different "language games." The scientist, for example, is involved in a different language game than the theologian. The meaning of a proposition must be understood in terms of its context, that is, in terms of the rules of the game of which that proposition is a part. The key to the resolution of philosophical puzzles, according to Wittgenstein, is the therapeutic process of examining and describing language in use. Wittgenstein’s aim seems to have been to show up as nonsense the things that philosophers (himself included) are tempted to say. Philosophical theories, he suggests, are attempts to answer questions that are not really questions at all (they are nonsense), or to solve problems that are not really problems. Philosophers, then, have the task of presenting the logic of our language clearly. This will not solve important problems but it will show that some things that we take to be important problems are really not problems at all. The gain is not wisdom but an absence of confusion. This is not a rejection of philosophy or logic. Wittgenstein took philosophical puzzlement very seriously indeed, but he thought that it needed dissolving by analysis rather than solving by the production of theories. For so “philosophy is not one of the descriptive natural sciences,” but “philosophy aims at the logical clarification of thoughts.” Its aim is to clear up riddle and confusion. It follows that philosophers should not concern themselves so much with what is actual, keeping up with the latest popularizations of science, say, which Wittgenstein despised. The philosopher’s proper concern is with what is possible, or rather with what is conceivable. This depends on our concepts and the ways they fit together as seen in language. What is conceivable and what is not, what makes sense and what does not, depends on the rules of language, of grammar. Wittgenstein suggests that one way, at least, to deal with such mysteries is to recall the different things one says about minds, memories, thoughts and so on, in a variety of contexts. So there is no timeless essence of at least some and perhaps all concepts, but we still understand one another well enough most of the time.
When nonsense is spoken or written, or when something just seems fishy, we can “sniff it out”. The road out of confusion can be a long and difficult one, hence the need for constant attention to detail and particular examples rather than generalizations, which tend to be vague and therefore potentially misleading. The slower is the route, the surer is safety at the end of it. That is why Wittgenstein said that in philosophy the winner is the one who finishes last. But we cannot escape language or the confusions to which it gives rise, except by dying. In the meantime, Wittgenstein offers four main methods to avoid philosophical confusion, as described by Norman Malcolm: describing circumstances in which a seemingly problematic expression might actually be used in everyday life, comparing our use of words with imaginary language games, imagining fictitious natural history, and explaining psychologically the temptation to use a certain expression inappropriately. Wittgenstein described this task like the next: “Language sets everyone the same traps; it is an immense network of easily accessible wrong turnings. And so we watch one man after another walking down the same paths and we know in advance where he will branch off, where walk straight on without noticing the side turning, etc. etc. What I have to do then is erect signposts at all the junctions where there are wrong turnings so as to help people past the danger points”. But such signposts are all that philosophy can offer and there is no certainty that they will be noticed or followed correctly. And we should remember that a signpost belongs in the context of a particular problem area. It might be no help at all elsewhere, and should not be treated as dogma. So philosophy offers no truths, no theories, nothing exciting, but mainly reminders of what we all know. This is not a glamorous role, but it is difficult and important. It requires an almost infinite capacity for taking pains (which is one definition of genius) and could have enormous implications for anyone who is drawn to philosophical contemplation or who is misled by bad philosophical theories. This applies not only to professional philosophers but to any people who stray into philosophical confusion, perhaps not even realizing that their problems are philosophical and not, say, scientific. Wittgenstein is thus a doubly key figure in the development and history of analytic philosophy, but he has become rather unfashionable because of his anti-theoretical, anti- scientism stance, because of the difficulty of his work, and perhaps also because he has been little understood.
Logical positivism. Influenced by B. Russell, L. Wittgenstein, G. E. Moore and others, a group of philosophers and mathematicians in Vienna in the 1920s initiated a movement known as logical positivism. This "Vienna Circle" initiated one of the most important chapters in the history of analytic and linguistic philosophy. Wittgenstein's “Tractatus” proved to be of decisive influence in the rejection of metaphysical doctrines for their meaninglessness, and the acceptance of empiricism, based on scientific verification, as a matter of logical necessity. According to the positivists, the task of philosophy is the clarification of meaning, not the discovery of new facts or the construction of traditional metaphysics. Logical positivism was a philosophical movement which used a strict principle of verifiability to reject as meaningless the non-empirical statements of metaphysics, theology, and ethics. The logical positivists regarded as meaningful only statements reporting empirical observations, taken together with the tautologies of logic and mathematics. According to the verifiability principle or theory of meaning, only through observations and practical use any information can be judged true or wrong, and so only scientific statements are legitimate factual claims, while metaphysical, religious, and ethical sentences are factually empty. 
A.J. Ayer (1910-1989), British philosopher, influenced the development of contemporary analytic philosophy. His most important work, “Language, Truth, and Logic” (1936), was an influential expression of contemporary logical positivism. Other works of Ayer include: “The Problem of Knowledge” (1956), “The Central Questions of Philosophy” (1973). Although his views were later modified, he maintained early on that all meaningful statements are either logical or empirical. According to his interpretation of principle of verification, a statement is considered empirical only if some sensory observation is relevant to determining its truth or falseness. Sentences that are neither logical nor empirical, including traditional religious, metaphysical, and ethical sentences, are judged to be nonsensical.
Linguistic analysis was that form of analytic philosophy inspired by the work of G. Moore and B. Russell, and developed explicitly by Wittgenstein in the “Tractatus”. Although no specific doctrines or tenets were accepted by the movement as a whole, analytic and linguistic philosophers agreed that the proper activity of philosophy was to clarify language so as to resolve philosophical problems which were immersed in linguistic confusion. A considerable diversity of views existed among analytic and linguistic philosophers regarding the nature of linguistic analysis. Some were concerned with clarifying the meaning of specific words or phrases as an essential step in making philosophical assertions clear and unambiguous. Others were concerned with determining the general conditions that must be met for any linguistic utterance to be meaningful; their intent was to establish criteria that would distinguish between meaningful and nonsensical sentences. Some focused on the analysis of ordinary, or natural, language. Still others were interested in creating formal, symbolic languages which were mathematical in nature. In their opposition to idealism and in their commitment to the careful attention to language, Moore and Russell set the mood and style for all subsequent analytic and linguistic philosophy.
G. E. Moore rejected Hegelian idealism and held that philosophy was primarily analysis. Moore’s analytical tenets may be summarized as follows. Philosophical tasks involve the clarification of puzzling propositions by indicating less complicated propositions to which the originals are held to be logically equivalent. Only when this task is completed can the truth or falsity of problematic philosophical assertions be adequately determined. 
Bertrand Russell was concerned with developing an ideal logical language that would accurately reflect the nature of the world. Russell’s logical atomism was a metaphysical view based on the logical analysis of language, and the insistence that meaningful propositions must correspond to facts. According to Russell, complex propositions can be resolved into their simplest components, which he called atomic propositions. These propositions refer to "atomic facts" and are the ultimate constituents of the universe. His interest in the structure of language also led him to distinguish between the grammatical form of a proposition and its logical form. Wittgenstein in his first major work, Tractatus, presented a theory of language which argued that "all philosophy is a critique of language" and that "philosophy aims at the logical clarification of thoughts." The results of Wittgenstein’s analysis resembled Russell’s logical atomism. The world, he argued, is ultimately composed of simple facts, and the purpose of language is to ‘picture’ these facts. To be meaningful, statements about the world must be reducible to linguistic utterances that have a structure similar to the simple facts pictured; and only propositions that picture facts, the propositions of science, are considered factually meaningful. Again we must repeat that metaphysical, theological, and ethical sentences were judged to be factually meaningless.
Logical Empiricism. In time, Ayer’s principle of verification came under attack as being too narrow, and yielded to the broader understanding of the nature of language represented in Wittgenstein’s concept of "language games." In his argument regarding the variety and flexibility of language—that the scientist, the poet, and the theologian are involved in different language games—it became clear that propositions do much more than simply picture facts. The later Wittgenstein argued that the meaning of a proposition must be understood in its context, that is, in terms of the rules of the language game of which that proposition is a part. Philosophy, he concluded, is an attempt to resolve problems that arise as the result of linguistic confusion; and the key to the resolution of such problems is ordinary language analysis and the proper use of language.
Later positivists rejected scientific verification maintaining that the verification principle itself is philosophically unverifiable. This later group preferred to call themselves logical empiricists. The tenets of logical empiricism may be summarized as follows. It combined the positivism of Hume and Conte with the Cartesian and Kantian concern for logical rigor and precision. It rejected metaphysics as a meaningless game of words. It insisted on the definition of all concepts in terms of observable facts. It assigned to philosophy the task of clarifying the concepts and the logical syntax of science 
British philosopher Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976) played a significant role in the development of contemporary analytic and linguistic philosophy. According to Ryle, the task of philosophy is to restate "systematically misleading expressions" into forms that are logically more accurate. He was particularly concerned with statements which misleadingly suggest the existence of nonexistent objects. In “The Concept of Mind” (1949) he attacked the so-called "mentalist language" which suggests that the mind is an entity in the same way as the body.
John Langshaw Austin (1911-1960), British philosopher, was another prominent figure in analytic and linguistic philosophy. He also viewed the fundamental philosophical task to be that of analyzing and clarifying ordinary language; and he came to believe that all language is "performative" and made up of "speech acts." According to Austin’s speech-act theory, many utterances do not merely describe reality; they also have an effect on reality, insofar as they too are the performance of some act. His posthumously published works include: “Sense and Sensibilia” (1962), “How to Do Things with Words” (1962). 
Peter Frederick Strawson (1919-2006), British philosopher, is associated with the movement known as ‘ordinary language’ philosophy. Strawson's first book, “Introduction to Logical Theory” (1952), contains his analysis of the relationship between formal logic and the logical features of ordinary language. According to Strawson, the complexity of ordinary language is inadequately represented by formal logic, and that in analyzing ordinary language a variety of tools must be used. In his work “Individuals” (1959), Strawson engaged in what he called descriptive metaphysics, an effort to describe how people think about the world.
Willard Quine (1908-2000), American philosopher, is known for his work in mathematical logic and his contributions to a pragmatic theory of knowledge. Quine is known for his criticism of the traditional distinction between so-called "synthetic statements" (empirical, or factual, propositions) and "analytic statements" (necessarily true propositions). For Quine, the justification for speaking one way rather than another, just as the justification for adopting one conceptual system rather than another, is a thoroughly pragmatic one. Quine also discussed the relationship between language and ontology. Quinean naturalist metaphilosophy was included to pragmatist philosophy. His published works include: “Mathematical Logic” (1940), “Two Dogmas of Empiricism” (1951), “From a Logical Point of View” (1953) and “Word and Object” (1960). 
The commitment to language analysis as a way of pursuing philosophy continues as a significant dimension in contemporary philosophy. A division also continues to exist between those who prefer to work with the precision and rigor of symbolic logical systems, and those who prefer to analyze ordinary language. Although few contemporary philosophers maintain that all philosophical problems are linguistic ones, the view continues to be widely held that attention to the logical structure of language and to how language is used in everyday discourse can often aid in resolving philosophical problems.
Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that began in the United States around 1870. Its origins are often attributed to the philosophers William James (1842-1910), John Dewey (1859-1952), and Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914). Peirce later described it in his pragmatic maxim: "Consider the practical effects of the objects of your conception. Then, your conception of those effects is the whole of your conception of the object." Their main books were: C. S. Peirce, "The Fixation of Belief" (1877), C. S. Peirce, "How to Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878), William James, “The Principles of Psychology” (1890), William James, “The Will to Believe” (1896), William James, “Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking” (1907), William James, “Essays in Radical Empiricism” (1912), John Dewey, “The New Psychology” (1884), John Dewey, “How We Think” (1910), John Dewey, "The Influence of Darwin on Philosophy and Other Essays" (1910), John Dewey, “Reconstruction in Philosophy” (1919), John Dewey, “The Quest for Certainty” (1929), John Dewey, “Three Independent Factors in Morals” (1930), John Dewey, “Experience and Education” (1938) ), John Dewey, “Freedom and Culture” (1939), John Dewey, “Knowing and the Known” (1949). Pragmatism considers thought as an instrument or tool for problem prediction and solving, and rejects the idea that the function of thought is to describe, represent, or mirror reality (typical for Marxism). Pragmatists claimed that most general philosophical topics, such as the nature of knowledge, language, concepts, meaning, belief and science, are all best viewed in terms of their practical uses and based on human experiences judgment about their successes or failures in individual practice. The best known ideas of pragmatism are those William James put down in his book “Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking”: “Truth has cash value”, “The true is only the expedient in our way of thinking” and “Copying is one (and only one) genuine mode of knowing”.
In the twentieth century, the schools of logical positivism and ordinary language philosophy have similarities with pragmatism. Like pragmatism, logical positivism provides a verification criterion of meaning that is supposed to rid us of nonsense metaphysics, however, logical positivism doesn't stress action as pragmatism does. The pragmatists rarely used their maxim of meaning to rule out all metaphysics as nonsense. Usually, pragmatism was put forth to correct metaphysical doctrines or to construct empirically verifiable ones rather than to provide a wholesale rejection. Pragmatism was not the first to apply evolution to theories of knowledge: in XIX century Schiller said the truth is that which "works" and Schopenhauer advocated a biological idealism where knowledge and action are portrayed as two separate spheres with an absolute or transcendental truth above and beyond any sort of inquiry organisms used to cope with life and what is useful to an organism to believe might differ from what is true. Pragmatism challenges this idealism by providing an "ecological" account of knowledge: inquiry is how organisms can get a grip on their environment. Real and true are functional labels in inquiry and cannot be understood outside of this context. It is not realist in a sense of “traditional” realism, but it is realistic in how it acknowledges an external world which must be dealt with. The role of belief in representing reality is widely debated in pragmatism. Is a belief valid when it represents reality? Are beliefs dispositions which qualify as true or false depending on how helpful they prove in inquiry and in action? Is it only in the struggle of intelligent organisms with the surrounding environment that beliefs acquire meaning? Does a belief only become true when it succeeds in this struggle? In Pragmatism nothing practical or useful is not held to be always and forever true for everybody, nor is anything which helps to survive merely in the short term. For example, to believe my cheating spouse is faithful may help me feel better now, but it is certainly not useful from a more long-term perspective because it doesn't accord with the facts (and is therefore not true). Pragmatism developed a coherentist theory of justification where justification is solely a function of some relationship between beliefs, none of which are privileged beliefs in the way maintained by foundational theories of justification. It was followed by a deflationary or pragmatist theory of truth which claims that assertions that predicate truth of a statement do not attribute a property called truth to such a statement while the latter is the epistemological claim that assertions that predicate truth of a statement attribute the property of useful-to-believe to such a statement. Later an anti-realist instrumentalist concept was added that a scientific concept or theory should be evaluated by how effectively it explains and predicts phenomena, as opposed to how accurately it describes objective reality. Pragmatic philosophy of language proposed an anti-representationalist view that rejects analyzing the semantic meaning of propositions, mental states, and statements in terms of a correspondence or representational relationship and instead analyzes semantic meaning in terms of notions like dispositions to action, inferential relationships, and/or functional roles (which is qute close to behaviorism and inferentialism). Many pragmatists are epistemological relativists and see this to be an important facet of their pragmatism, but this is controversial and other pragmatists argue such relativism to be seriously misguided (e.g. Hilary Putnam, Susan Haack). Pragmatism sees no fundamental difference between practical and theoretical reason, nor any ontological difference between facts and values. In ontological aspect, pragmatics generally kept to a pluralist view that there is more than one sound way to conceptualize the world and its content. Different forms of empiricism, fallibilism, verificationism, and a Quinean naturalist metaphilosophy are elements of pragmatist philosophy.
Both facts and values have cognitive content: knowledge is what we should believe; values are hypotheses about what is good in action. Pragmatist ethics is humanistic because it sees no ultimate test of morality beyond what matters for us as humans. Good values are those for which we have good reasons. The pragmatist formulation pre-dates those of other philosophers who have stressed important similarities between values and facts such as Jerome Schneewind and John Searle. William James in his essay “The Will to Believe” (1896) argued that ethics always involves a certain degree of trust or faith and that we cannot always wait for adequate proof when making moral decisions. Moral questions immediately present themselves as questions whose solution cannot wait for sensible proof. A moral question is a question not of what sensibly exists, but of what is good, or would be good if it did exist. A social organism of any type or size creates special norms for each member to proceed to his own duty with a trust that the other members will simultaneously do theirs. Wherever a desired result is achieved by the co-operation of many independent persons, its existence as a fact is a pure consequence of the precoursive faith in one another of those immediately concerned. John Dewey in his article John Dewey “Three Independent Factors in Morals” (1930 tried to integrate three basic philosophical perspectives on morality: the right, the virtuous and the good. He held that while all three provide meaningful ways to think about moral questions, the possibility of conflict among the three elements cannot always be easily solved. Dewey also criticized the dichotomy between “means and ends” which he saw as responsible for the degradation of our everyday working lives and education, both conceived as merely a means to an end. He stressed the need for meaningful labor and a conception of education that viewed it not as a preparation for life but as life itself. Dewey was opposed to other ethical philosophies of his time, notably the emotivism of Alfred Ayer. Dewey envisioned the possibility of ethics as an experimental discipline, and thought values could best be characterized not as feelings or imperatives, but as hypotheses about what actions will lead to satisfactory results or what he termed consummator experience. A further implication of this view is that ethics is a fallible undertaking, since human beings are frequently unable to know what would satisfy them.
For medical students it may be important that during the XXI century pragmatism was embraced by many in the field of bioethics led by the philosophers John Lachs and his student Glenn McGee, whose 1997 book "'The Perfect Baby: A Pragmatic Approach to Genetic Engineering'" garnered praise from within classical American philosophy and criticism from bioethics for its development of a theory of pragmatic bioethics and its rejection of the principalism theory then in vogue in medical ethics. An anthology published by The MIT Press, "'Pragmatic Bioethics'" included the responses of philosophers to that debate, including Micah Hester, Griffin Trotter and others many of whom developed their own theories based on the work of Dewey, Peirce, Royce and others. Lachs himself developed several applications of pragmatism to bioethics independent of but extending from the work of Dewey and James. A recent pragmatist contribution to ethics is Todd Lekan's "Making Morality" (2003). Lekan argues that morality is a fallible but rational practice and that it has traditionally been misconceived as based on theory or principles. Instead, he argues, theory and rules arise as tools to make practice more intelligent.
Neopragmatism is a broad contemporary category used for various thinkers that incorporate important insights of, and yet significantly diverge from, the classical pragmatists. This divergence may occur either in their philosophical methodology (many of them are loyal to the analytic tradition) or in conceptual formation (C.I. Lewis was very critical of Dewey; Richard Rorty dislikes Peirce). Important analytical neopragmatists include the aforementioned C.I.Lewis, W. V. O. Quine, Donald Davidson, Hilary Putnam, Stanley Fish, Jürgen Habermas and Richard Rorty. Brazilian social thinker Roberto Unger advocates for a "radical pragmatism", one that "de-naturalizes" society and culture. Neoclassical pragmatism denotes those thinkers who consider themselves inheritors of the project of the classical pragmatists. Sidney Hook and Susan Haack (known for the theory of foundherentism) are well-known examples. Many pragmatist ideas (especially those of Peirce) find a natural expression in the decision-theoretic reconstruction of epistemology pursued in the work of Isaac Levi. Nicholas Rescher advocates his version of "methodical pragmatism" based on construing pragmatic efficacy not as a replacement for truths but as a means to its evidentiation. Not all pragmatists are easily characterized. It is probable, considering the advent of post-analytic philosophy and the diversification of Anglo-American philosophy, that more philosophers will be influenced by pragmatist thought without necessarily publicly committing themselves to that philosophical school: Daniel Dennett, Stephen Toulmin, Mark Johnson (embodied philosophy, 1999). Conceptual pragmatism is a theory of knowledge originating with the work of the philosopher and logician Clarence Irving Lewis Mind and the World Order: Outline of a Theory of Knowledge (1929). 'French Pragmatism' is attended with theorists such as Bruno Latour, Michel Crozier, Luc Boltanski, and Laurent Thévenot.
Control Tasks and Questions
1. Name and describe the main historical stages of XX century philosophy development.
2. Which of the main ideas and representatives of rational of XX century philosophy can be referred to as rational?
3. Which of the main ideas and representatives of rational of XX century philosophy can be referred to as irrational?
4. Characterize the main ideas of positivist philosophy and its impact on modern science development.
5. Describe the main ideas of pragmatist philosophy.
6. Characterize the main ideas of philosophy of biosphere and noosphere and its impact on modern science and on social world outlook development.
7. Describe the main ideas and representatives of philosophy of global problems, philosophy of information society, technocratic and antitechnocratic philosophy.
8. Describe the main ideas and representatives of philosophy of existence and neo-Thomism.
9. Describe the main ideas and representatives of philosophy of psychological analysis.
10. Which are the main variants of XX century philosophy interpretation of reasons of psychological conflicts and diseases and ways out of them?

RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
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2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martin’s Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. Kymlicka W. Contemporary Political Philosophers/ W. Kymlicka. –Oxford, 2002. – 512 p.
5. Brentano F. C. Sensory and Noetic Consciousness / F. C. Brentano. – London : Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981. – 139 p.
6 Cohen C. Four Systems/ C. Cohen. –  New York : Random House, 1982. – 168 p.
7. Sallis J. Deconstruction and Philosophy / J. Sallis. – Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1987. – 207 p.
8. Dewey J. Theory of the Moral Life / J. Dewey. – New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1960. – 145 p.
9. Dummett M. Frege: Philosophy of Language / M. Dummett. – Harvard : Harvard University Press, 1993. – 752 p.
10. Fromm E. To Have or to Be?/ E. Fromm. – London, New York : Continuum, 1968. – 182 p.
11. Fromm E. Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics / E. Fromm. – New York, Toronto : Henry Holt and Company, 1990. – 272 p.
12. Gadamer H-G. Dialogue and Dialectics / H-G. Gadamer. – Yale : Yale University Press, 1983. – 240 p.
13. Gibson Q. The Existence Principle / Q. Gibson. – Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998. – 192 p.
14. Heidegger M. The Basic Problems of Phenomenology/ M. Heidegger. – Bloomington : Indiana University Press, 1988. – 432 p.
15. Strauss L. History of Political Philosophy/ L. Strauss, J. Cropsey. Chicago, London : The University of Chicago Press, 1987. – 966 p.
16. Hubburd R. Creation of Human Ability/ R. Hubburd. – Copenhagen : Bridge Publications, 2007. – 529 p.
17. James W. Pragmatism / W. James. – Cambridge : Harvard University Press, 1975. – 275 p.
18. Marcuse H. The Aesthetic Dimension / H. Marcuse. – Boston : Beacon Press, 1978. – 108 p.
19. Marcuse H. One-Dimensional Man/ H. Marcuse. – Boston : Beacon Press, 1966. – 182 p.
20. Miller B. The Fullness of Being / B. Miller. – Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2002. – 175 p.
21. Moore G. E. Principia Ethica / G. E. Moore. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. – 332 p.
22. Nisbet R. Prejudices. A Philosophical Dictionary/ R. Nisbet. – Cambridge et al.: Harvard University Press, 1982. -348 p.
23. Parsons T. Nonexistent Objects / T. Parsons. – New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980. – 112 p.
24. Popper K. Science: Conjectures and Refutations. The Growth of Scientific Knowledge/ K. Popper. – London : Routledge, 1963. – 45 p.
25. Popper K. The Poverty of Historicism / K. Popper. – London : Routledge, 2002. – 176 p.
26. Williams B. Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy / B. Williams. – Routledge, 2011. – 296 p.
27. Williams C. J. F. Being, Identity, and Truth / C. J. F. Williams. – Clarendon : Clarendon Press, 1992. – 240 p.
28. Whitehead A. N. Process and Reality / A. N. Whitehead. – New York, 1979. – 413 p.
29 Woolgar S. Science: The Very Idea / S. Woolgar. – London, New York, 1988. – 160 p.
30. N.V. Popov, A.A. Zakordonets. Philosophy. Scholarly applicable methods for international students / A.A. Zakordonets, N.V. Popov. Kyiv: Bogomolets National Medical University, 2004. — 72 p.
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Part 6. History of Philosophy of Ukraine
This chapter provides an opportunity to get acquainted with culture and philosophy of Ukraine, the country you are studying in. It has long history and it made its contribution into the world philosophy like other countries.
The most ancient parts of modern Ukraine territory which can be traced for philosophical heritage are those of Black Sea coast regions. They were colonized by Ancient Greeks and later Romans so their population was well acquainted with all the achievements of Hellenistic culture. Some natives of that regions made quite important additions to the philosophical discussions of that period, as for example prince of Scythia Anaharsis was claimed to be almost as sharp minded and tongued as Socrates himself. Pagan priests of ancient Slavonic tribes also developed huge massive of knowledge in all spheres of human life but it was almost completely destroyed in the process of adoption of Christian religion. Only small fragments like “Book of Veles” preserved till our days.
Philosophy of Kiev Russ. The official foundation of philosophy in Ukraine is connected with creation of Old Slavonic alphabet by St. Cyril (826-870) and St. Methodiy which provided opportunity of translation of the ancient Greek philosophical works (St. Cyril was officially given a title of Constantine the Philosopher) and also with the creation of Christian monasteries in Kiev Russ monks of which created many original philosophical books (Illarion of Kiev, Clement of Smolensk, Daniel the Imprisoned and others). The nobles and merchants of Russ were also highly educated and participated in theoretical discussions. As for example, duke Vladimir Monomachus wrote the book “Testament or To the Sons” which summarized all the ethical, social and political ideas of that period. . Historical transition from Slavonic polytheism to Christian monotheism took place at that time, but it was never fully accomplished and practically lead to some synthesis of both. Officially Christian conversion of Russ took place in Kiev in 988. But Christian communities and churches existed in main towns much earlier. Like in West Europe scholasticism, perception of truth was connected to proper faith and belief. In these historical conditions philosophical knowledge was considered to be universal wisdom and generalized knowledge about human being, natural and over natural world, “knowledge of divine and human things and deeds”, as a servant of human wisdom and common sense, good actions and strivings. The main goals of the philosophy were not only mastering the experience of ancient Greece with subsequent development of own language and systems of theoretical notions, but also addressing moral problems and experience, first of all stressing upon necessity of charity given, avoidance of anger, violence and selfishness; appeal to integration of Slavonic tribes and lands for fighting against invaders and so on.
Philosophy of Ukraine in XVI-XVII centuries. It was the period of late Middle Ages and Renaissance, which was characterized by domination of church and Christian theology. But even in these conditions, upheavals took place, which were connected with necessity to distinguish clerical and secular life and wisdom as well as with constant struggle for national independence.
In Ukraine such tendency was connected with the names of Ivan Vyshenskiy, who formulated the idea of development of national science and education and deeply engaged in defense of Orthodox Christianity against Caholicism, Trankvillion Stavrovetskiy, who started book-printing, and also researched the problem of human being as “the third world”, Innocentiy Gisel, Kasian Sakovich, Stanislaw Orihovskiy the Roxolan and many others. This period was marked by development of Enlightenment, creation of brotherly schools (at monasteries) and Kiev-Mogilyan academy, where the doctors were trained for the first time. Its founder was Pyotr Mohila, who led Ukrainian church in XVI-XVII centuries and reestablished its independence after attempt of incorporation in Polish Catholicism by Unifiers, and most prominent rector of it was Theophanous Prokopovich. Many Ukrainian young people studied in European universities (Bologna, Padua, Prague) at that time and some of them even become professors of European universities, e.g. Yuriy from Drohobych.
Of all the philosophers of that period the name of humanist Grigoriy Skovoroda (1722-1794) was most famous. It was he, who put out the problem of human being into the center of philosophy. Skovoroda’s philosophical views can be characterized by the next main ideas. The world around us consists of “three worlds”. The first world is macrocosm (nature), the second one is human being’s world, microcosm, and the third one is the world of symbols, the world of the Bible. In teaching about human being, he divides two natures (internal and external), giving preference to the internal one. Skovoroda stated that human beings are not equal in the world, but they all are equal in front of God and for so main problem of human mortal life is preparation for afterlife, first of all by keeping to the proper ethics. His most famous statement on this problem is written on his grave: “The world tried to catch me but I escaped”. Humans are inborn inclined to the certain types of behavior and activity (one is born to be a peasant, the other to be a trader, the third one to be a monk). Human being’s happiness depends on following his heart will and wisdom, as the heart connects humans on God’s will. That is why philosophy of Skovoroda was referred to as “philosophy of heart” and later this term was applied to characterize all the Ukrainian philosophy.
Philosophy of Ukraine in XIX-XX centuries can be divided into several periods. The XIX and early XX century period was represented by Marxist Ukrainian philosophy (M. Dragomanov, I. Franko, M. Grushevkiy, L. Ukrainka), academician philosophy (P. Yurkevich and O. Potebnya) and Ukrainian Romanticism (T. Shevchenko and P. Kulish). The central problems of Ukrainian Romanticism were Ukrainian world outlook specificity, national mentality and possibility of Ukrainian independence restoration at least in cultural sphere (Ukraine was politically subjugated by Russian Empire and later Soviet Union at that time). Taras Shevchenko was a world famous poet, who aroused feelings of freedom and national dignity of Ukrainian people. P. Kulish in his “Village Philosophy” argued about inherited individualistic, pantheistic and patriotic (Antheus) traditions of Ukrainian world outlook which differ it from the Russian one and so create cultural basis for Ukrainian independence.
Development of higher school in Ukraine is attributed to this period: universities in Lvov, Kharkov, Kiev (1841), from which medical university named after O. Bohomolets can trace its origin, were founded. That gave rise to academician philosophy, founder of which P. Yurkevich worked in St. Petersburg University for most of his life but continued approach of G. Skovoroda in research of human being, his soul and spirituality. He wrote the book “Philosophy of Heart”, where under “heart” human being mentality was meant, “the initial point of everything good and bad in words, thoughts and actions of human being”. O. Potebnya together with V. Lesevich created the basic elements and concepts of Ukrainian theoretical terminology system.
Volodimir Vernadskiy (Vladimir Ivanovych Vernadsky, 1863-1945) and his philosophy of biosphere and noosphere was undoubtedly the pinnacle of Ukrainian academician philosophy. V. Vernadskiy had a broad range of scientific interests and really deep intuition, prophetic gift of applying new ways of research, so he laid the foundation for complex of new rapidly progressing natural sciences such as crystalloid mineralogy, geochemistry, biogeochemistry, radioecology, history of natural sciences, general history of science and scientific world outlook. Besides all this, he developed ideas that are more philosophical than scientific and remain under discussion in philosophy of science and social philosophy till our days: teaching about meteorites as biological substance vectors (“panspermia”), and, most important, the concept of biosphere (sphere of biological organisms presence and results of their life activity) and noosphere (sphere of human mind influence and results of human beings reasonable activity).
Vernadskiy was born in Ukraine but studied and doctorated "Apparitions of slip crystalline substance" at Moscow University. He became a professor of it and in 1906 was elected as member of the High Council of Moscow University. Two years later he became an academician and at the same time a chairman of the Academic Council at the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Vernadskiy continued research, publishing articles on mineralogy, geochemistry of mineral on the. In 1917 he refused the communist October Revolution and returned to Ukraine, where he participated actively in the creation of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences and was elected its first president. After the conquest of Ukrainian People Republic by communist Russia he worked at the Siberian Industry Development Committee and later was transferred to Moscow.
Vernadskiy was not an expert in a single science or even in several sciences. He knew brilliantly a dozen sciences It was extremely important for Vernadskiy to examine the object of research in different aspects. "I am interested in more than one practical side, although important, but in coherent account of the very progress of science, according to the latest data. I thought about the possibility of generalizations in this area and opportunities to deep in the understanding of foundations of our worldview, which are achievable through analysis of philosophical or other ways” — he wrote. Originality and novelty of his ideas would be more important if we remember that in his time, theoretical problems of history of science were not treated too seriously.
Humanity and Biosphere Relations in Vernadskiy Philosophy. Vernadskiy long researched both social and natural objects and their relationships and result of it was the idea that if humanity is the result of long evolution of biological organisms and our entire planet and most heavily depend on conditions and resources created by biological organisms and ecological systems, now humans are not just users or spectators, but the creators of nature. The key idea of Vernadskiy was that the transition occurred from the Earth's biosphere into noosphere, which is the kingdom of the mind, that it is not a local episode in the backyard of boundless Universe, but natural and inevitable stage of development of material world. Human activity will become geological force in all the varied aspects of social and individual life: "In fact a person, being a part of the biosphere, only in comparison with observed phenomena is possible to judge the Universe. It hangs in a thin layer of the Biosphere and thought only gets up and down. All we, the people are an inseparable part of lively substances involved in its immortality, needs and the fraction of space, a successor of Sun Life Children”. That was Vernadskiy’s viewpoint on biosphere as a special geological body and force, which structure and functions are defined by specific features of the Earth and outer space (e.g. accumulation of solar energy by plants). Living organisms species and populations formed the system of the biosphere. Vernadskiy described the biogeochemical principles as high changebility and adaptability of living substance, its plasticity and variability in time. The central theme of the teaching about biosphere and noosphere is unity between nature and humanity. Vernadskiy in his work reveals the roots of this unity, the value of progress of biosphere to human development level. This helps to understand the role and place of historical development of mankind in the biosphere evolution and its transition to the noosphere.
Vernadskiy’s concept of noosphere is rooted in but not limited to the teachings of the influence of geographical location conditions on the mentality of human population which were popular till Enlightenment. One of the key ideas of the theory of noosphere is that the person is not self sufficient creature which lives by its own laws, it exists within nature and is part of it. This unity is caused, above all, by functional continuity of the environment. Humanity itself is a natural phenomenon and the influence of the biosphere affects not only life in environment, but the image of thought. But not only nature influences mankind, there is also feedback here. In his book "Few Words about the Noosphere (1943) Vernadskiy wrote that "the biosphere is … changed by mankind consciously and primarily unconsciously, … physically and chemically”, not only by intensifying soils erosion and biological species extinction, polluting air and water, coastal seas and deep oceans, but as well by creation of new kinds and races of animals and plants, new agricultural, urban and industrial systems, new chemical substances and physical processes (e.g. nuclear energy use). In "Philosophical Thoughts of Naturalist" (1944) Vernadskiy wrote: "We just live it vivid entry into the geological history of the planet. Evolution of the biosphere naturally leads to the conclusion that Homo Sapiens and practical appliance of social scientific thought of mankind is actually the geological force. In the last millennium there is a solid increase in impact of one of species on lively substance, of civilized humanity, to change the biosphere. The biosphere transforms into noosphere under the influence of scientific thought and of human labor…"
Inhabiting all corners of the planet, relying on machinery and organized research, man created in the biosphere new force that supports the propagation and subsequent colonization of different parts of the biosphere. And together with a living area humanity begins to be more cohesive mass, as developing means of communication and transmitting ideas enveloping entire globe. "This process - the complete settlement of the biosphere by man - due course of the history of scientific thought is inextricably linked to the speed of technique development, with the possibility of instantaneous transmission of thoughts, its simultaneous discussion anywhere on the planet."
Vernadskiy was the first who realized that all people in the world can and must think and act in a new aspect, not only in terms of person, family or nation, or of their unions, but also in planetary aspect. For him XX century is characterized by the fact that any events which happened in any part of world are linked together, and every day social, scientific and cultural connectivity of mankind is increased further. Vernadskiy repeatedly mentioned that "civilization is culture of mankind " as it is a form of the new geological forces that created in the biosphere and as this is a great natural phenomenon, which corresponds to the historic rather geological organization of the material world. Noosphere becomes phenomenon, which is general for the whole planet and must promote peaceful relations of single mankind instead of self-destructive military and criminal activity. Only on this basis the discovery of new energy sources cam lead to rise of people’s material well-being, equality and totality. The next stage of humanity development shall be its autotrophy, independence from consummation of biological organisms of Earth biosphere and products of their activity, which will enable the widespread of humans in all the Universe as carriers of its self-understanding. Vernadskiy rejected the idea of national states sovereignty, national cultures and languages independence and further existence of religion as obstacles to practical implementation of noospheric unity of humanity after the outbreak of Second World War which was understood by him as a way to humanity self-destruction. Generally, theory of noosphere started modern cosmological trends in philosophy based on scientific and even scientism trends.
The Vernadskiy’s ideas about the role of science and organization. Several unusual approaches to science were undertaken by Vernadskiy. He viewed it as geological and historical force that changes the biosphere and human life, forms deeper unity between humanity and the biosphere. In the book "Scientific thought as a planetary phenomenon" Vernadskiy examines geological history of Earth and argues that there is transition of biosphere in the noosphere under the influence of new geological force – humanity labor led by scientific knowledge. Man is not separable from the biosphere, he lives in it and can explore only its objects by his senses direct. "Beyond the biosphere it can penetrate only understanding based on the few categories of countless facts that he can get in the biosphere visually study report and study the heavens in the biosphere are the reflections of space radiation or entering the biosphere extraterrestrial space substance.” Thus, the scientific opinion of mankind, working only in the biosphere, is its manifestation, eventually transforming it into noosphere.
Vernadskiy assigned a special place for researches of XX century, underlining that most of the great scientific discoveries and technological innovations were made in the XX century and consequently, that was time of unprecedented prosperity, a kind of explosion creativity, and so humanity has accumulated enormous potential for “technological rash” and half-baked innovation products appliance in services of opposing corporations, countries and social systems. To avoid the disaster science must become ecumenical, world science, covering the entire planet. Vernadskiy paid much attention to the humanistic content of science, its role in solving problems of humanity, the responsibility of scientists for the application of scientific discoveries. These and many other ideas of Vernadskiy on the role of science in human development and transition of biosphere into noosphere are most valuable for our time.
Vernadskiy reviewed science as a mean of human development. It is therefore very important that science is not an abstract form of acquired knowledge; it does not have independent existence of its essence. Science is the creation of mankind and should serve the welfare of mankind. "Its content is not limited to scientific theories, hypotheses, models created: it is based in the main image composed of scientific factors and their empirical generalizations, and most importantly … to bring results of scientific work to working people." So science must be the foundation of general education, based on a force of facts, generalizations, and of course in the unstoppable development of human mind.
From all the above mentioned Vernadskiy suggested the following conclusions. The scientific work of man is the power that changes the biosphere. This change in the biosphere is an inevitable process that accompanies scientific growth. The changes the biosphere could be also the spontaneous natural process that occurs independently of human will. Entering a new factor in the biosphere of the change — the human mind — is natural process of transition from biosphere to noosphere. Constantly improving science can advance farther in the study of the surrounding environment. Geochemistry and biogeochemistry meet the needs of holistic, synthetic consideration of the phenomena of organization of the biosphere, and backward linkages lively stuff. These sciences have also to study the initial value of unity of biosphere and humanity. Thus, geochemistry and biogeochemistry combine the science of nature with the science of man. Such an integrated science center, in the opinion of Vernadskiy, is the teaching about biosphere.
The tasks for creating the noosphere. The transition process in the biosphere noosphere inevitably bears the features of consciousness purposeful activity, creative work. Vernadskiy saw the challenges that humanity faces for creation of noosphere. From the position of these tasks, he rejected thoughts about possible collapse of civilization. The perspectives of human development from the standpoint of Vernadskiy were the next. Humanity is on the way to cover the Earth, more reinforcing its ties with the biosphere. Mankind becomes ecumenical category. Humanity in its development should be a single entity because the interests of all, and not individuals, must become public task. Global problems of humanity, such as conscious control of reproduction of life and victory over the disease would begin to be resolved. The aim is to widespread scientific knowledge to all mankind. 
Vernadskiy wrote: "Such actions and ideas never happened previuosly, and it is clear that the movement cannot be stopped. In particular, scientists are known for the near future for their task of noospheric conscious organization, away from which they cannot be, because the spontaneous process of growth of scientific knowledge directs them so." Confidence in the future, therefore, is based on growing importance of human development compatible social activity. Vernadskiy, of course, could not predict the severity of contemporary global issues of world development. But they only reinforce the importance of problem of noospheric consciousness organization. 
One of the major problems of organization of the noosphere is the role of science in society, the impact of research on state development. Vernadskiy expressed it by the task of formation of a single (at the state and then planet level) scientific human mind, which would have been a decisive factor in noospheric development and would create better life for next generations. Priority issues will be resolved along the way, it is “a matter of planned, consistent work to master nature and establish proper distribution of wealth associated with the consciousness of unity and equality of all people”.
Noosphere in the late twentieth century: predictions and reality. For civilization there are only two ways: self-destruction and transition to a new level of consciousness. Today we face costs a lot of global issues: peace on earth, ecology, food problem, overpopulation, poverty of a greater share of humanity. All problems of humanity are spined in a tangled ball - they are interrelated and complement each other. The modern approach to this set of problems is greatly influenced by the philosophical and scientific teaching about biosphere and noosphere of V.I.Vernadskiy.
So, what is the noosphere: Utopia or a real strategy for survival? Proceedings Vernadskiy allow more informed answer to that question, as they indicated a number of specific conditions necessary for the formation and existence of the noosphere. These conditions are enumerated on scattered pages of the book "Scientific thought as a planetary phenomenon” and partially in other publications of Vernadskiy: human population of all the planet; a dramatic transformation in communication and exchange between countries; strengthening of political links all countries of the Earth; top prevailing geologic role of man over other geological processes occurring in the biosphere; expanding the boundaries of the biosphere into outer space; discovery and practical implementation of new sources of energy; equality of people of all races and religions; increasing role of the masses in making decisions in foreign and domestic policy; freedom of scientific thought from pressure of religious, philosophical and political formations; sound system of public education and social care; creation of real opportunity to prevent malnutrition and hunger, poverty and disease; reasonable transformation of the primary nature of the Earth to make it capable meet all the tangible, aesthetic and spiritual needs of growing population; elimination of wars.
But how are these conditions fulfilled in modern world? Humanity had inhabitated the entire planet - this condition is fulfilled. A rapid transformation of communication and exchange between countries - this condition can also be counted as satisfied. With radio and television we immediately learn of events in any part of the globe. Communication tools are constantly being improved, accelerated, there are such possibilities, which recently was hard to dream. And here we cannot recall the prophetic words of Vernadskiy: "This process - the complete settlement of the biosphere by man due the course of the history of scientific thought, is inseparably linked with the success of technology development, with the possibility of instant simultaneous discussion of opinions on the entire planet". Until recently, the limited means of telecommunications by telegraph, telephone, radio and television were unable to transfer data from one man to another in large enough scale, paperwork passed out in disastrous quantities. Only in recent years the development of global telecommunication computer network of the Internet gave rise to a revolution in human civilization which is now in the era of information. Growth and development of the Internet, improving computing and communication technology is now similar to what is as vivid reproduction and evolution of organisms. At one time it drew attention to idea of V.I. Vernadskiy: “with speeds comparable to speeds of propagation of living matter in geometric progression in the course of time created in this way in the biosphere is a growing set of new natural for her body backward and major new natural phenomena ... scientific progress thoughts, such as the creation of machines, long seen as absolutely different of reproduction of organisms”.
The network was used previously only in computer science researchers, civil servants and contractors, now almost any interested person can get access to it. And here we see the dreams of Vernadskiy on environment favorable for both development and widespread of international scientific knowledge. Indeed, if people still shared borders and great distances, in the net you may experience only the language barrier. "Every scientific fact, every scientific observation - Vernadskiy wrote, - wherever and by whomever made, coming in one scientific apparatus, therein are classified and converted to a single form, immediately become public domain for criticism, reflection and research work. Now any scientist who has access to the Internet, can submit their work for example, as page or site of the so-called WWW (World Wide Web) for review all network users creations, not only text and pictures (as on paper), but also moving pictures and sound. Vernadskiy wrote: “Soon you can make visible to all events taking place thousands of miles away”. This prediction has come true.
The prevailing geologic role of man over other geological processes occurring in the biosphere was described as most important characteristic of noosphere formation. This condition also can be considered done, although the prevailing geological role of man in some cases led to serious environmental consequences. The volume of rock, pulling from the depths of the Earth by all the mines and quarries, is now almost twice the average volume of lava and ash to be submitted annually by all volcanoes of the Earth. 
Expanding the boundaries of the biosphere and out into space was also prophesied in the last works of V.I. Vernadskiy, where the biosphere is not considered to be permanent border of human existence. He stressed upon the expansion of them in previous periods of evolution as a result of high trees presence, flying insects and birds, activity of inhabitants of ocean depth etc. In the process of transition from biosphere to noosphere boundaries should be further expanded, and a mankind should go into space. These predictions come partially true already now.
The discovery of new energy sources was thought to be necessary for noosphere formation. Condition is fulfilled, but, unfortunately, with tragic consequences. Nuclear power has long been mastered for peaceful and military purposes. Humanity (or rather policy) is clearly not ready to limit peaceful purposes in this - atomic (nuclear) power joined our century primarily as a military deterrent and a means of opposing nuclear powers. The use of nuclear energy deeply bothers Vernadskiy more in half a century ago. In the preface to the book "Essays and speeches" he wrote prophetically: "Near is the time when people get their hands on nuclear energy is a source of strength that will allow them to build his life as he chooses ...  Are people able to use this power to direct it for good instead of self-destruction? Do they already got ability to use the force, which inevitably science should give him? ". Huge nuclear arsenals maintained a sense of mutual fear and prevented the third world war. But the power of new energy source could prove controversial, if it got in the wrong hands. To develop international cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy in 1957 was established the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which united up to 111 states. 
Strengthening the links between all countries of the Earth in economical, political and cultural spheres of life was also forecasted. This condition can be considered if not satisfied, then running to it. Created after World War II the United Nations (UN) was much more stable and effective than the League of Nations which existed in Geneva from 1919 to 1946. Equality for people of all races and religions was also thought to be important for developing of noosphere. This condition has not been achieved yet. The decisive step to establish equality of men of different races and religions was the destruction of colonial empires at the end of XX century. But then tribalism and religious extremism step forward… Elimination of war from human life was considered by Vernadskiy to be extremely important for the creation and existence of the noosphere. But it is not achieved and it is not clear whether this may be. The international community seeks to prevent world war, but local wars still take out a lot of lives. 
The role of the masses in the decision making on foreign and domestic policy is increasing. This condition is adhered to in all countries with a parliamentary form of government. But the totalitarian regimes and brutal oppression still hold the place. Sound system of public education and social care creates a real opportunity to prevent malnutrition and hunger, poverty and disease. The implementation of this condition is difficult to be judged objectively when many countries are still on the verge of starvation and poverty. However Vernadskiy warned that the transition process from biosphere to noosphere cannot happen gradually and mono directional, but in this way temporary degradations are inevitable.
Reasonable conversion of primary nature of the Earth to make it able to satisfy all the material, aesthetic and spiritual needs of numerically increasing population. This condition, especially in our country cannot be treated as achived, but the first steps toward a reasonable transformation of nature in the second half of XX century, undoubtedly, were made. In the current period we have integration of science-based environmental ideas in public opinion. The entire system of scientific knowledge provides a foundation for environmental objectives. It also said Vernadskiy, to create a unified science of the biosphere. Western society already created most conditions for the sustainable development of civilization. The green extremist movements were no longer necessary because the state earned mechanisms of regulation of environmental problems. But in our country during the current period of unresolved economic problems environmental problems take a back seat. More over as global environmental problems are to be resolved in the face of rising world population, the sovereignty of individual states seems doubtful.
Given the one that became famous a new mapping mental activity, we can develop closer knowledge and enlightenment. The language in this case is about the opportunities that harbor unconscious associated with the semantics of the universe. New aspects of subjectivity, incorporating with all the wealth of accumulated knowledge, will help a person find a new quality necessary for the formation of the noosphere, a representative and defender of subjective nature, enriching nature of consciousness and will of a thinking man. Getting in the face of human consciousness, armed with all the accumulated information, and will able to attract energy that he has at his disposal, nature gets a real chance to survive even in these difficult circumstances. Obviously, the ecological education has not succeeded completely yet, because of a very large inertia of human nature, based upon “the hunting times” desire to take from environment as much as possible. However, protection of biosphere is becoming a common cause everywhere as for civilization there are only two ways: self-destruction and transition to a new level of consciousness. Today we face a lot of global issues: erosion of soils, rare biological species extinction, insufficient food production, pollution of water and air, overpopulation and over urbanization, poverty of a greater share of humanity. All problems of humanity are interrelated and complement each other. The modern approach to this set of problems is greatly influenced by the philosophical and scientific teaching about biosphere and noosphere of V.I.Vernadskiy.
One of the modern teachings closest connected to the Vernadskiy teaching about biosphere and noosphere is globalism. Globalists proceed from the hypothesis about the influence of cosmic forces on the processes at our planet, within which the known to us laws of interaction of matter, energy and information are valid. Among our globalists, whose works are concerned with the problem of nature of a human being's psyche, we may call K. Ziolkovsky, I.Kondratyev, D.Oparin, A.Chizhevskiy, L.Gumilev and some others. The global approach generated astrobiology or exobiology, the science about forms of extraterrestrial life, biophysics, ecology of the planet, geomagnetobiology (geomagnetic biology), ecological psychology or psychology of life environment and some other directions in the study of biological and social phenomena. Among the most popular and influential globalist world organizations of XX century the Roman Club shall be mentioned (A.Peccei, D.Medhouse, J.Forrester, I.Tinbergen and others), many recommendations of which really were adopted by state governments and finally led to the concept of sustainable development of humanity adoption by UNO.
The very popular variant of philosophical teachings about biosphere (sphere of life) and noosphere (sphere of mind) were created by Pier Teilhard de Sharden. In his book The Phenomenon of Man (Le phénomène humain, 1955) the French philosopher, paleontologist and Christian Jesuit priest Pierre Teilhard de Chardin described evolution of nature as a process that leads to increasing complexity of biological organisms and ecological systems. From one-cellular microorganisms to the modern mammal animals, a process of psychical concentration could be traced. The emergence of Homo sapiens marks the beginning of a new age, as the power acquired by consciousness to turn in upon itself raises humankind to the level of noosphere. Teilhard describes history of humankind as evolution becoming conscious of itself, borrowing this expression of one of the main developers of theory of natural selection and evolution of the 20th century, Julian Huxley, who also wrote foreword for the above mentioned book first edition. In Teilhard's concept of the evolution of the species, some “collective identity” appeared and began to develop accumulation and transmission of psychic energy, which speed and scale, depth and complexity was increased at each further stage of evolution. Finally, a thinking layer or membrane is formed that envelops the earth. Teilhard calls it the “noosphere”, the collective consciousness of humanity, the networks of thought and emotion in which all are immersed (some resemblance to modern Internet system can be traced here). The development of science and technology causes an expansion of the human sphere of influence, allowing a person to be simultaneously present in every corner of the world. Teilhard argues that humanity has thus become cosmopolitan, stretching a single organized membrane over the Earth. Teilhard describes the process by which this happens as a "gigantic psychobiological operation, a sort of mega-synthesis, the “super-arrangement” to which all the thinking elements of the earth find themselves today individually and collectively subject". The rapid expansion of the noosphere requires a new domain of psychical expansion out of Earth planet limits. In Teilhard’s view, evolution will culminate in the final Omega Point, a sort of supreme consciousness which will establish unification or fusing of human consciousness, God and living substance, but each individual facet of consciousness will remain conscious of itself at the end of the process. This concentrated “conscious Universe” will reassemble in itself all consciousnesses as well as all the objects that we are conscious of.
The period of Soviet and post Soviet Ukraine philosophy. Philosophy of that period reflected requirements of communist ideology and was turned into its apologetic maidservant. Creative potential of philosophy was lost. But from the 60-ties of the XX century the process of philosophic liberation from ties of dogmatism and scholasticism started. The famous school of philosophers was formed, who studied methodological issues and logic of natural sciences, theory of human being and culture, theory of activity, history of philosophy (P. Kopnin, V. Shinkaruk, M. Popovich, S. Krymskiy, V. Ivanov). Researches of philosophical issues concerning biology and medicine were greatly developed. From 1965 till 1991 the philosophy department of the Kiev Medical University published a republican scientific digest under such the name and so stable connection of philosophy to development of science and medicine became apparent. In the Institute of philosophy name d after G. Skovoroda of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine were also created special departments for such philosophical researches, and in XXI century further development of actual problems of philosophical understanding of economical, political and spiritual development of Ukrainian people and especially biological and ecological problems of modern life was continued by such the authors as M. Bulatov, T. Gardashuk, M. Kiselyov, V. Krisachenko, I. Ogorodnik, V. Zagorodnuyk and others.

Control Tasks and Questions
1. Name and describe the main the main ideas and representatives of Kiev Rus philosophy.
2. Name and describe the main ideas and representatives of Ukrainian philosophy of XVI-XVII Centuries century.
3. Characterize the main ideas of Grigoriy Skovoroda philosophical teachings about three worlds and affinity to labor.
4. Name and describe the main ideas and representatives of Ukrainian Romanticism of XIX century.
5. Name and describe the main ideas and representatives of Ukrainian Positivism of XIX-XX century.
6. Name and describe the main ideas and representatives of Ukrainian Diaspora philosophy of XX century.
7. Name and describe the main ideas and representatives of Ukrainian Soviet and post Soviet of XX century.
8. Name and describe the main ideas and representatives of Ukrainian modern philosophy.
9. Characterize the main ideas of V.I.Vernadskiy teaching about biosphere and noosphere.

RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
1. Kravchenko B. Social Change and National Consciousness in Twentieth Century Ukraine / B. Kravchenko. – London: Macmillan, 1985. – 423 p.
2. Lysiak-Rudnyisky I. Essays in Modern Ukrainian History / I. Lysiak-Rudnyisky. – Edmonton : University of Alberta, 1987. – 491 p.
3. Vernadskiy V. Essays on Geochemistry & the Biosphere, tr. Olga Barash, Santa Fe, NM, Synergetic Press, ISBN 0-907791-36-0, 2006.
4. Vernadskiy V. Dnevniki 1917–1921: oktyabr 1917-yanvar 1920 (Diaries 1917–1921), Kiev, Naukova dumka, 1994, ISBN 5-12-004641-X, 269 pp.
5. Vernadskiy V. Dnevniki. Mart 1921-avgust 1925 (Diaries 1921–1925), Moscow, Nauka, 1998, ISBN 5-02-004422-9, 213 pp.
6. Vernadskiy V. Dnevniki 1926–1934 (Diaries 1926–1934), Moscow, Nauka, 2001, ISBN 5-02-004409-1, 455 pp.
7. Vernadskiy V. Dnevniki 1935–1941 v dvukh knigakh. Kniga 1, 1935–1938 (Diaries 1935–1941 in two volumes. Volume 1, 1935–1938), Moscow, Nauka, 2006,ISBN 5-02-033831-1,444 pp.
8. Vernadskiy V. Dnevniki 1935–1941 v dvukh knigakh. Kniga 2, 1939–1941 (Diaries 1935–1941. Volume 2, 1939–1941), Moscow, Nauka, 2006, ISBN 5-02-033832-X, 295 pp.
9. Electronic archive of writings from and about Vernadskiy (Russian) http://vernadsky.lib.ru/
10. N.V. Popov, A.A. Zakordonets. Philosophy. Scholarly applicable methods for international students / A.A. Zakordonets, N.V. Popov. Kyiv: Bogomolets National Medical University, 2004. — 72 p.
11. Vermenko A. Yu. Philosophy: [textbook] / A. Yu. Vermenko. – Nizhin : PE Lisenko N.M., 2016.  – 150 p.

Part 7. Ontology
Ontology (derived from Greek words “ontos” which means “essence” and “logos” which means notion or mind) is a philosophical teaching about world structure, laws of its existence and development. The main objects of research and initial notions of philosophical ontology are existence, material substance, consciousness, activity, development etc. They always were the center of philosophical researches in the sphere of ontology and as well for natural sciences, as over specific problems and notions of each science always exist general categories and objects reflecting main properties, components and laws of development of natural world. They also have great significance for medicine, as it is impossible to determine object and subject of medicine, to find out the limits and rules of medical activity, notion of health and illness and other specific forms of human existence without proper understanding of general scientific picture of world.
Main historical concepts of ontology are the next. Objective:  world is something independent and human is just a part of the world and must follow its laws existing independently of human mind. Subjective: human consciousness and activity create the world and its rules. Non-substantial: the base of the world is the process, stream, emptiness (e. g. apeiron of Anaximander). Substantial: the base of the world is the substance, either material or over natural, ideal and absolute. During historical development of world philosophy two variants of substantial model have been formed: materialistic and idealistic.
Materialistic philosophy is represented by many teachings from primitive atomism of Democritus and Epicurus up to modern dialectical materialism and synergetic theory. They all are based on the notion “matter” or “material substance” which forms the basis of natural or material world which exists objectively, independently of human consciousness, wishes, presence or absence of human knowledge about the entire Universe and some of his components. This world follow its own rules and laws so humans have to reflect correctly in the senses and mind everything what exists in the world. All existing things and bodies are composed of different types of material substance united in different ways. According to modern, non-classical philosophy, the matter includes not only substance, but many other forms as well, such as plasma, electromagnetic waves, high energy particles beams, and even high gravity fields in some concepts. 
In ancient Greek philosophy “materia” meant “substance” which lies in the basis of the world. At New Time scientists and philosophers understood certain physical characteristics of the world (extension, weight, and mass) under material substance. The new discoveries of the XIX century revealed interconnections of the world’s phenomena and their unity. Modern understanding of material substance is comprised on considerable massive of knowledge about natural world, society and human being existence and development. Material substance was understood in Marxist dialectical materialism as a philosophical category, with the help of which objective reality is reflected, which is given to a human being in his sensations, which is copied by these sensations existing independently on them. Such definition says that material substance is a mental abstraction with the help of which a human being’s reflects his most general properties of all phenomena and objects of reality. The first property of the objective world is that it exists independently on whether we perceive it or not. Material substance is all that exists independently on our consciousness, our feelings, is not subjective and cannot be referred to it. Our consciousness also really exists (in our actions, ideas, produced texts etc.), as material substance, but it is subjective reality, which stands out as the basis of objective reality.
Notion of material substance has great world outlook significance, forming fundamentals of scientific knowledge about the world. But it is directly connected with scientific data on material substance composition. Material substance composition is studied by specific sciences, in the same way as a human body is studied by a complex of medical sciences. So it is inadmissible to equate philosophical notion of material substance with natural scientific knowledge about its composition and structure. As for example, when the phenomenon of radioactivity was discovered at the end of the XIX century, some philosophers-metaphysicians contended that transition of substance into energy means that material substance disappears in this way. This statement was based on old understanding of material substance as only chemical substance. Interpreting of material substance as objective reality eliminated this error, because both substance and energy really exist independently on a human consciousness. Since the beginning of XX century, physics describes two kinds of material substance now: substance and field, which in their turn have different aggregate conditions. Substance can exist in solid, liquid or gaseous from (e.g. ice, water and steam). Field is a wave form of material substance and different fields are singled out: gravitational, electromagnetic and sometimes even “biological”.
Structural organization of material substance. Material substance has different structural levels according to main forms of movement presented at each level. They are: mechanical (movement of big masses), physical (atom level), chemical (molecular level), biological (life and activity of living or biological organisms), social (life and activity of humans. social groups and institutions). Higher form of movement is based on the lower one and includes its elements but the laws of higher form would subdue and transform the laws of lower level. As for example, each chemical reaction requires special, individual set of environmental parameters (pressure, pH, temperature etc.), catalysts, initial substances and products migration from reaction zone and so on. But in the one cell of biological organisms a wide set of chemical reactions could take place at the same time under the same physical and chemical conditions, due to presence and influence of biocatalysts (albumens and nuclear acids). 
The objective world appears to be so structured like the human organism. Natural sciences recognize existence of specific features and laws for three main levels of matter structural organization: non-organic world, organic world and a human society. Each of them is structured as well (recall the data on biology and anatomy about structural organization of a human body). Along with structural character, science discovered that material substance has systematic organization. There are many types of systems in the objective world. But we are especially interested in organic systems (from the cell to biosphere), to which a human organism belongs to. There are subsystems in this system, separate organs, interaction of which provides normal functioning and development of organism. And at last, science discovers one more property of material substance – its unity. It means that there is nothing in the world but material substance and the world unity is in its materiality. Modern natural science s also claims that it is possible to convert one type of material substance in another and even some practical applications of it are already developed like plasma treating of metal objects surfaces.
Materialist ontology equalizes matter and essence. The source of world harmony was considered to be the property of the matter. Cultural sphere wasn't considered to be a full sphere of essence. The consciousness appeared due to labor activity and humans social communication. On basis of conscious notions (our knowledge about the world) and values (religion, moral, political etc) that regulate relations between people the civilized society is formed and constantly developing. Ideal objects therefore exist due to human activity and compose “second reality”. This sphere of essence is secondary because it can not exist without primary material objects (human brains, books, means of communication etc.) as carries of it. It doesn't have spatial, terminal parameters, causality and other features of matter. For so in classical materialism of Enlightenment and Marxism ideal has only the appearance of essence, really only matter and its forms exist while post-classical materialistic philosophy approves some degree of independence of existence for ideal objects. Materialistic notion of matter as primary substance is the basis of modern scientific picture of the world and general theoretical world outlook. Starting from it, a doctor can solve the problems of illness nature, reasons of sickness rate. And in unity with consciousness notion, a doctor must take into consideration of correlation of physiological and psychological at studying pathological phenomena, while treating a patient.
Problem of motion in materialistic philosophy. The Heraclites was, probably, the first philosopher, who described problem of motion in his expression: “Everything flows and goes on”. B. Spinoza contended that nature has reason in itself. Mechanical materialism came to conclusion that there is only mechanical transference. And this required searching of motion source: outside nature or in itself. Development of natural science in the XVIII-XIX centuries allowed working out new ideas about motion, its complicated character and notion of motion itself. Three great discoveries were valuable: creation of cellular theory of organism structure, evolution theory and law on energy preservation and transformation. In modern philosophy motion or movement is understood as the essential property of matter and way of its existence. Movement cannot be destroyed. It can only transfer from one form into another. Forms of matter existence are space and time. In the world matter, movement, space and time form a unity and no element can be taking out of it. As for example, the relativistic theory, invented by Albert Einstein, states that the time would pass slower for the objects with the extremely high speed of movement, which is equal or nearly equal to speed of light. It turned out to be that motion is inseparable of material substance, which constantly changes.
Notion of motion is the same most general philosophical abstraction as notion of material substance. It reflects internal activity of material substance, which is in constant changeability of everything what exists (starting with simple transference and finishing with a human being’s motion of thought). Motion is represented by many specific forms depending on different levels of structural organization of material substance, its forms and types, and on this basis the levels of material substance motion (mechanical, chemical and physical motion – in lifeless nature, biological – in living nature, social motion – in a society) are distinguished as it was demonstrated above. All these forms of motion are connected with each other and can transform into each other (e.g. chemical energy of food is required for mechanical movements of biological organisms and for human brains thinking activity as well). Motion is contradictory in its nature. The fact that it features constant changes of material substance, defines absoluteness of motion. The fact that motion is carried out in certain, specific forms, features its relativity. Exaggeration of presence of periods of stability leads to metaphysical conceptions about absence or unimportance of motion and exaggeration of absolute unavoidability of changes leads to relativism while dialectical and synergetic approach to understanding of motion as unity of absolute unavoidability of changes and presence of periods of relative stability lead to understanding of continuity and discontinuity of changes.
Biological form and level of motion reflects the specific way of organic systems existence on the basis of metabolism, exchange of substance, energy and information owing to assimilation and dissimilation. It includes and transforms all the lower forms of motion (mechanical, chemical and physical) as it has its qualitative specificity, which provides functioning of organism as the whole system. Specificity is also in the fact that living organism development is realized owing to hereditariness and changeability, the basis of which is genotype (and gene pool of populations). Such understanding of biological form of motion helps to see falseness of mechanism and vitalism in biology and medicine. Mechanism reduces living to lifeless matter level, to external features of its functioning, that leads to ignoring specificity of the living. Vitalism (and neovitalism), on the contrary, tries to regard everything the living separately of the lifeless, absolutes its specificity. In that way, connection of the living with the whole nature is lost and in medicine it leads to impossibility of understanding of health and illness as natural processes, which take place under certain physical, chemical and not only biological conditions. Neovitalism falsely contends that everything in a human being comes “from genes” without any regard to social conditions.
Space and time problem in materialistic philosophy. We live in well-ordered world and therefore in the world that we can understand. We can determine any subject or phenomenon through fixating it in the space and time. For this we use space and time schemes. We localize every phenomenon in such schemes so that it has its own place among other phenomena. The fact that subjects exist in space and time is something evident and undoubted to us. We think the world is just that what we perceive, so what we see is real and there're no problems for us, but in philosophy any evidence hides problems. Change and development of the material world can take place only in space and in time, which are the forms of material substance existence. This statement of materialism is based on the data of modern natural science (physics, chemistry, biology). They deny statements of idealism and metaphysics that space and time are just a repository of objects and phenomena of the world, or order of our sensations. Einstein’s special and general theory of relativity substantiated inseparable unity of material substance, motion, space and time. That is why modern materialistic understanding of space and time recognizes them as objective forms of material substance existence, which are inseparable of each other. Space is extension of material substance, totality of material objects, placed near each other. Time is duration of existing of objects and processes, which arise one because of another as sequence of events taking place in the objective world. The indestructibility of material substance means its eternity in time and limitlessness in space. Space has 3 different dimensions in classical science, and up to 24 dimensions in non-classical physics of Heisenberg, while time has only single direction — from past to future. Biological and social space and time are recognized to have specific to them features (greater speed of changes, principal asymmetry, negative entropy etc.), and human life combines both biological and social elements which is important to be considered in medicine.
There are many advantages and disadvantages in materialistic philosophy and different types of it. One of the main advantages is that materialism is very close to scientific world picture and participates in its development and widespread, but at the same time it can be a great disadvantage of it too as it is hard to exactly separate such philosophical theory from the scientific one. The problem is also that there is not exact enough notion of matter. Initially it was considered to be absolute and unchangeable but later the science proved that atom is divisible and mass is not absolute. Therefore matter as a substance is more likely to be a symbol of belief for materialists than scientific notion. The main problem of Marxist variant of ontology is that it denies independent essence and existence for ideal objects and claims them to be purely virtual ones. But man should have some values, should aim to them because otherwise he may back to animal essence. To be a real man you must always develop your spiritual world, create it and give it absolute essence. For humans spiritual values have sense and essence the same as material things. This is the reason, why Marxist materialism is often criticized for making human life non-sensible. However, many anti-Marxist modern political, ideological and philosophical theories can be also traced as leading to the same result.
Philosophy of idealism. As a philosophical term, idealism refers to any view that stresses the central role of the ideal or the spiritual in human interpretation of experience. Basic variant of idealism is ontological metaphysical idealism which claims that the essence of world or reality is spiritual or over natural. Metaphysical idealism is directly opposed to materialism, which views matter as the basic substance of the world, and states that it is known primarily through and as material forms and processes; and in its epistemology. Epistemological idealism claims that abstractions and laws are more fundamental in reality than sensory things, or that whatever exists is known to humans in ideal psychic or mental forms of thoughts, ideas, ideals, beliefs and so on. Epistemological idealism is opposed to realism, which holds that in human knowledge elements of objective reality are reflected and copied by senses as they exist outside and independently of the mind. As a philosophy often expressed in bold and expansive patterns, idealism is also opposed to various restrictive forms of thought such as skepticism, positivism and pragmatism, which oppose “meaningful” observable facts and relations to “meaningless” ultimate and therefore speculative "pretensions" of metaphysics; and often to atheism, since the idealist commonly extrapolates the concept of mind to embrace an infinite over natural mind (first of all, of God). The essential orientation of idealism can be sensed through some of its typical tenets: "Truth is the whole or the Absolute"; "To be is to be perceived"; "Reality reveals its ultimate nature more faithful in its highest qualities (of ideal objects)";"The Ego is both subject and object" (for subjective idealists).
Several types of idealism may be distinguished. Cultural differences suggest a division into Western (European) and Eastern (Asian) idealism. To Western type belongs idealism of G. Berkeley which is called subjective idealism because he reduced reality to spirits (his name for subjects) and the ideas entertained by spirits. In Berkeley's philosophy the apparent objectivity of the world outside the self was accommodated to his subjectivism by claiming that its objects are ideas in the mind of God. Immanuel Kant in his book “Critique of Pure Reason” (1787) presented a system of transcendental idealism, so named because Kant thought that the human "transcendental ego" constructs knowledge out of sense impressions, upon which are imposed certain pre-experienced universal concepts that he called categories (though Kant himself preferred the term “critical idealism”). In the early 19th century J.G. Fichte constructed the subjective moral idealism system (with the special attention to ethic). Fichte exalted the subject above the object, employing the term Ego to mean God in the two memorable propositions: "The Ego posits itself and "The Ego posits the non-Ego (or nature)." The objective idealism systems were proposed by F.W.J. Shelling (with the special attention to aesthetic and religious dimensions of problem) and G.W.F. Hegel (with the special attention to dialectics of Absolute). Most variants of modern Western idealism are based on concepts of Kant, Fichte, Shelling and Hegel, but some use heritage of other great idealists such as Plato, Plotinus, Spinoza, Leibniz and others. A revised form of Spinoza's spiritual monism, for example, which held that reality is one Substance to be identified with God, has been formulated by the idealist logician H.H. Joachim (1868-1938), a follower of the British Hegelian F.H. Bradley (1846-1924). Kantian Idealism or transcendentalism was followed by Edward Caird (1835-1908), who imported German Idealism into England, and the German philosopher of "As If" Hans Vaihinger (1852-1933), who held that much of human so-called knowledge can be reduced to pragmatic fictions. On the same tradition was based idealism of the religious essayist Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881), best represented in “Sartor Resartus” (1833-1834), and the New England transcendentalism of Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882). Marburg school of Neo-Kantian, or scientific, idealism adopted the motto "From Kant forward". They rejected objective idealistic concepts and the classical Newtonian dynamics and based their researches on the modern physics quantum and relativity theories. Founded by Hermann Cohen (1842-1918) and Platonic scholar Paul Natorp (1854-1924), who applied Kant's critical method to humanistic as well as to scientific studies, this school underwent a remarkable development under the leadership of Ernst Cassirer, noted for his profound analyses of man as the animal that creates culture through a unique capacity for symbolic representation.
Another way of classifying idealism types is to use their connection to different branches of philosophy. The spiritual, theistic, Hegelian, personalism and vitalism idealism in such the way can be referred to ontology and metaphysical idealism. Epistemological idealism can be referred to gnoseology or epistemology. Good examples of it are “Prolegomena to an Idealist Theory of Knowledge” of Kantian scholar N.K. Smith's (1872-1958) and idealistic philosophy of science of A.N. Whitehead (1861-1947), noted for his collaboration with Bertrand Russell in mathematical logic and for his metaphysics of process. Aesthetic idealism (e.g. concept of Shelling) is devoted to philosophical theories of beauty in nature and in all forms of art. Axiological idealism is represented by philosophy of Wilbur M. Urban (1873-1952) and deals with theories of value and valuation. Ethical idealism deals with moral values, rights, and obligations and is represented by concepts of Fichte, Green, Platonian scholar A.E. Taylor (1864-1945), theistic pluralist Hastings Rashdall (1858-1924), German philosopher of life and action Rudolf Eucken (1846-1926) and the absolutist W.R. Sorley (1855-1935).
Obviously, some of the types of idealism in the above given classification conflict one with another. For example, spiritual monism and spiritual pluralism are opposite types; personalism rejects absolute idealism; and atheistic spiritual pluralism is in sharp conflict with theistic spiritual pluralism. These and other issues keep idealists in dialogue with each other, but much more heated disputes are kept with the anti-idealists. The realist Ralph Barton Perry (1876-1957) in his article "The Ego-Centric Predicament" (1910) admitted that the primary approach of every philosopher to the problem of ultimate reality must be through his own thought, using his own ideas, and this human predicament that has been unjustifiably exploited by the idealists. The famous "Refutation of Idealism" of G.E. Moore (1873-1958) and Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) discuss the distinction between subject's act of perceiving and the perceptual object of this act, which they both called a "sense datum." They claimed that Berkeley's “To be is to be perceived” argument is vitiated by his failure to make this distinction. Logical positivism claims that a basic weakness in idealism is its rejection of the doctrine of empirical verifiability, according to which every proposition that claims to be true must be verified by searching out the sense experience in which its terms originated. Linguistic philosophy attacks idealism by making a detailed analysis of its more technical terms in an effort to prove that they are full of ambiguities and double meanings. Marxist critics attacked the ontological and the mystical arguments for idealism. They borrowed and adapted the dialectical method of Hegel and used it effectively to develop dialectical Materialism, an archenemy of all types of idealisms, but first of all to spiritualism and neo-Thomism. Although it is now on decline, at least in Western culture, the great idealist tradition survived many other historic periods of turmoil and shows evidence of being a reflection of some permanent aspect of the human spirit. In any case, it seems highly unlikely that such a rich heritage of philosophical thought will vanish entirely.
Main forms of existence and specificity of human existence. Existence is the widest, universal category of philosophical knowledge. The contents of this category expose itself with the help of such notions as: status, actuality, reality. Status is totality of human being’s events, processes, and phenomena, emotional experience, intentions and conceptions. This totality has its past and future. Actuality is totality of all statuses in past and future, so constant changeability; beginnings and destruction are inherent to it. Reality is in a way a synonym of actuality, which helps to understand it more specifically. Something that exists in the world objectively, but not in human being’s mind is called objective reality. And something that is connected with human consciousness, its special conditions (joy, sorrow, perception, prayer) and forms of human being’s spirituality is reflected by subjective reality notion. The heroes of fairytales, myths, our knowledge and intentions belong to it. Subjective reality, created by a human being is connected with objective reality, as a human being with the world, surrounding him. Their close connection assumes interconnection, influence each other. It is reflected in notion of existence. It is a human being, who is the center where subjective and objective realities come together, that is why he is the basis of existence.
In the wide sense, existence category reflects everything which does exist. In this sense it has its real structure. Objective reality is reflected by material substance notion, and subjective reality is reflected by consciousness notion. The solution of main philosophical problem depends not only on understanding of its contents, but also on specificity of its forms. The next main forms of existence are distinguished: existence of living and non-living natural objects, processes, conditions; existence of artificial objects and processes, created by humans (e.g. technique as second nature); existence of individual human beings and social groups or institutions; existence of spiritual or ideal objects of individual and super individual (public) character. Among these forms of existence, a human being’s existence and its absolutely necessary prerequisite of existence of human biological body with satisfaction of its natural needs occupies special place for both philosophers and medicine students. Materialism gives considerable significance to this condition, taking into consideration the fact that a human being’s consciousness and thinking is impossible without normal functioning of human healthy body with all its organs and systems as human being’s existence is a dialectical unity of body and spirit. Specificity of human existence can be defined like the following: human being’s existence is a unity of body and soul, their interconnection and interference; human existence has an individual and personal character but is the product of human race history and evolution of the natural world; an individual human being’s existence takes place in a society and depends on social conditions but has the potential for transformation of society. Human being’s existence is a complex unity of natural, substantial and spiritual, individual and generic, personal and social beginnings. Categories of material substance and consciousness can be useful to proper understanding of it.
Non-Classical and Post-Non-Classical Scientific Picture of the World. Important discoveries in physics, chemistry and biology made in XX century initiated the modern scientific revolution which led to the revision of almost all classical theories.
Theory of relativity of Einstein along with quantum theory played a most important role in the development of modern physics. Creation of the theory of relativity allowed reconsidering the traditional views and attitudes about the material world. Such a revision of views that existed was necessary because the classical physics met many problems that could not be solved by using previously existing theories. One such problem was the notions of space and time and related to them question of the ultimate speed of light, which was not solved from the standpoint of the previously dominant principles of Galilean relativity, based on the Galilean transformation, which claimed that the space does not depend on time and vice versa from time to space. Existed in physics ideas about them were based on the laws of classical mechanics, as natural science of classical period was dominated by the view that every phenomenon has, ultimately, the mechanistic nature. Many experimental facts proved the concept of permanence and a maximum speed of light as universal constant. As for example, in 1887 the experiments of Michelson and Morley showed that the velocity of light in vacuum does not depend on the movement of light sources and the same happens in all inertial reference systems. The Danish astronomer Ole Roemer monitored the retardation of eclipses of Jupiter's moons finite amount of light. When the laws of electrodynamics were formulated and expressed in Maxwell's equations, it turned out that Maxwell's equations are not invariant under Galilean transformations. Shortly before the creation of the theory of relativity, Lorenz transformations were found under which the Maxwell equations remain invariant. In these transformations, in contrast to the Galilean transformation, the time characteristics were not the same for all the types and situations of objects interaction, as well space and time were no more independent of each other, since the space coordinates transformation involved the transformation of time coordinates. Best known examples are differences in time passing for objects with different speed of movement. And as a consequence, the question arose - what to do with this? There were two solutions only: to assume that Maxwell's electrodynamics is wrong or to assume that the classical mechanics with its transformations and the principle of Galilean relativity is an approximation fit only for narrow range of conditions (relatively small speed and mass of objects interacting) and so cannot describe all physical phenomena. Thus, at this stage in the physics existed apparent contradiction between the classical principle of relativity and the provision of a universal constant, as well between classical mechanics and electrodynamics. There were many attempts to give other formulations of the laws of electrodynamics, but they were unsuccessful and only played role of prerequisites to the creation of the theory of relativity.
The inseparable connection between space, time and movement of material substance in different forms of it was successfully demonstrated the theory of relativity. Einstein's work, along with great value in physics, was also of a great philosophical significance. Evidence of this follows from the fact that the theory of relativity is related to such concepts as matter, space, time and motion, which are fundamental philosophical concepts. Dialectical materialism found in Einstein's theory the reasoning of its concepts of space and time, which define space and time as main forms of existence of material substance, inseparable from it. From the viewpoint of scientific materialism, which is based on data from different natural sciences, space and time - do not stand alone, independent of material reality and the inner shape of her life. 
There were many attempts to use the theory of relativity made by idealists. For example, an American physicist and philosopher F. Frank said that the physics of the twentieth century, especially the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics, stopped the movement of philosophical thought to materialism, based on the rule of the mechanical picture of the world in the last century. Frank said that the theory of relativity made the law of conservation of matter no longer valid, that the matter can be converted into intangible essence, energy. However, all the idealistic interpretations of the theory of relativity are based on distorted conclusions. An example of this is that sometimes a substitute for philosophical idealists meaning of "absolute" and "relative" physical. They argue that since the coordinates of the smallest sub-atomic or sub-nuclear particles of substance and their speed will always be a purely relative value (in the physical sense), they will never become even approximately absolute values and therefore, supposedly, can never reflect the absolute truth (in the philosophical sense). In fact, even though the definition of position and velocity of the smallest sub-atomic particles does not have an absolute character (in the physical sense) it is an approximation to absolute truth. The theory of relativity sets the relative nature of space and time (in the physical sense), and idealists interpret this as a negation of objective nature of space and time. The relative nature of simultaneity and sequence of two events arises from the relativity of time, and idealists try to use this to deny the necessary character of causation. In the materialist philosophy both classical concepts of space and time, and ideas about the theory of relativity are described as relative truth, which includes only some elements of absolute truth.
Material substance understanding by Einstein. Einstein forced physics to stop identifying matter or material substance only with chemical substance particles and described the laws of transformation between substance, energy (e.g. speed of movement as representation of kinetic energy) and field. His most famous formula is E=mc2, where E is energy, m – mass of object and c – the speed of its movement.
Until the middle of the XIX century the concept of material component of world in physics was identical to the concept of substance. Until that time, physics had only known that material substance could have three aggregate forms. This concept of material component of world was formed due to the fact that the objects of classical physics were merely the mechanically moving bodies made of material substance and natural science was not aware of other types and states of matter (electromagnetic processes were referred either to the matter or to its properties). For this reason, the mechanical properties of the material substance were claimed to be universal properties of the world as a whole. Einstein wrote that for the physics of the early nineteenth century, the reality of our outer world consisted of particles, between which there are common forces that depend only on the distance. Representations of material substance began to change only with the advent of a new concept of “the field” introduced by the English physicist Michael Faraday. In 1831 Faraday had discovered electromagnetic induction and the relationship between electricity and magnetism. He was the founder of the doctrine of the electromagnetic field and thus gave start to the evolution of ideas about electromagnetic phenomena, and hence to the evolution of the concept of matter. Faraday was the first to introduce concepts such as electric and magnetic field which suggested the existence of electromagnetic waves and thus opened a new chapter in physics. Later Maxwell developed the ideas of Faraday in the theory of the electromagnetic field. However, the fact that matter can exist as the electromagnetic field, could not be explained by traditional physics mechanical images and representations, and so discovery of the electromagnetic fields was one of the fundamental discoveries of physics. It strongly influenced the further development of science, as well as philosophical ideas about the world.
For some time the existence of electromagnetic fields could not be scientifically proven and described by one harmonious theory. Scientists produced many hypotheses in an attempt to explain the nature of electromagnetic fields. Benjamin Franklin explained electrical phenomena by the presence of special material substance consisting of very small particles. Euler tried to explain electromagnetic phenomena by means of “ether”, he said that the light in relation to the airwaves is the same thing as sound in relation to the air. During this period, corpuscular theory of light became popular, according to which the light phenomena could be explained by the emission of particles by illuminated bodies. There have been attempts to explain the electrical and magnetic phenomena by existence of certain material substances related to these phenomena. They were attributed to the presence of magnetic and electric “fluids” at the beginning of the XIX century and even medical theory of the use of them for treatment of patients by “mediums restoration, increase and activation” was proposed by Mesmer. Phenomena related to electricity magnetism and light were widely known and popular, and scientists researched them, trying to explain these phenomena separately, but since 1820 this approach has become impossible as it was impossible to ignore the discoveries made by Ampere and Oersted, which made apparent connection between electricity and magnetism. Ampere discovered that if a conductor of electric current is located near the magnet than this conductor begins to act like the field magnet. Oersted observed another effect: the influence of an electric current flowing through the conductor on a magnetic needle next to the conductor. From this it was concluded that the change in the electric field is accompanied by the change in magnetic field and vise versa. On the basis of experimental data accumulated by Oersted, Ampere, Faraday and other scientists, Maxwell has created a holistic theory of electromagnetism. Later, his research led to the conclusion that light and electromagnetic waves has the same nature. It was also discovered that the electric and magnetic field has such a property as energy. Einstein wrote that at first only serving as the auxiliary model, field became more and more real. Maxwell also showed that the electromagnetic field being once established can exist independently from the source. However, he did not single out the field in a separate form of matter that would be different from the substance.
Further development of the theory of electromagnetism by a number of scientists, including Lorenz, had shaken traditional physical picture of the world. In theory of Lorenz as opposed to Maxwell's electrodynamics the electron had the measurable electric charge, generating an electromagnetic field, which was not formally part of the charge carrier. But a new obstacle appeared in the way of knowing the interrelation of electromagnetic fields with matter. Substance in accordance with classical ideas was thought of as a discrete material formation, and the field was represented by a continuous “medium”. Properties of matter and fields were considered incompatible. The first who had bridged the gulf that separated the substance and the field was Max Planck. He came to the conclusion that the processes of emission and absorption of the field substance occur discretely as movement of photon sub-atomic particles with energy E=hv. This changed inderstanding of the field and matter and led to elimination of an obstacle to the recognition of field as a form of matter. Einstein went further, he suggested that the electromagnetic radiation is not only emitted and absorbed by the portions, but is distributed discretely. He said that the free radiation is a stream of photons. Einstein put down the idea that a photon, by analogy with the substance, has the impulse, the value of which can be expressed through the energy E / c = h  / c. The existence of impulse momentum had been proved in conducted by Russian scientist P.N. Lebedev experiments to measure the pressure of light on solid body and gases. Here, Einstein showed compatibility of the properties of matter and fields, since the left side of the above relation reflects the corpuscular properties, and the right describes properties of the wave. Then physics had accumulated a lot of facts proving the truth of such representation of the field and matter. Many scientists began to consider the field and the substance to be two forms of matter.
Based on this, as well as a number of other considerations, it became necessary to connect the mechanics and electrodynamics. But it proved impossible to simply attach to the laws of electrodynamics to Newton's laws of motion and declare them unified system that describes the mechanical and electromagnetic phenomena in any inertial reference system. The impossibility of such a union of two theories stems from the fact that these theories, as it was mentioned earlier, are based on different principles. It was expressed by the fact that the laws of electrodynamics, in contrast to the laws of classical mechanics, are non-covariant in respect to Galilean transformations. In order to build a single system, which would include both mechanics and electrodynamics, there were two most obvious ways. The first was to change the Maxwell equation, i.e. the laws of electrodynamics, in such a way that they would satisfy Galilean transformations. The second way was associated with classical mechanics, and demanded its revision, and in particular the introduction instead of the Galilean transformations the other reforms that would ensure the covariance of the laws of mechanics and the laws of electrodynamics. Einstein went the second way and created the special theory of relativity in 1905, which was finally adopted by majority of scientists. Further knowledge of the matter have been supplemented and expanded, and this allowed more clearly expressed integration of mechanical and wave properties of matter. This can be illustrated by the theory, which was introduced in 1924 by Louis de Broglie which suggested that not only a wave have corpuscular properties, but also smallest particles of matter have wave properties (wave length). Now E = h / p, where p is the momentum of the particle.
Based on these ideas, E. Schrödinger created quantum mechanics, where the particle motion is described by wave equations. And these theories showed the presence of the wave properties of matter, which have been confirmed experimentally. For example, it was found that when micro particles are passing through the crystal lattice, phenomena of diffraction and interference can be observed which were once thought to be unique to the waves. On basis of this a theory of quantum fields developed, which is based on the notion of a quantum field as a special kind of matter, which exists both as the smallest particle of substance and as the field. An elementary particle in this theory appears as an excited state of the quantum field, and field is the special kind of matter, which has characteristic of the particles, but is in an unexcited state. In practice it has been shown, that if the photon energy of the electromagnetic field exceeds the energy of electron and a positron which, as we know from the theory of relativity, is equal to mc2, and if such a quantum collide with the nucleus, the result of interaction of electromagnetic photon and the nucleus will be a couple of electron and positron. There is also a reverse process: the collision of electron and positron leads to their annihilation, and instead of two particles will be formed two --rays. Such the conversion of the field in the matter and back of matter in the field indicate the existence of close association of the substance and the field form of matter, which was taken as the basis for the creation of many theories, including the theory of relativity. After the publication of special theory of relativity by Einstein, there have been many discoveries related to the physical study of matter, but these discoveries have relied on a basic understanding of matter, which was first given the form of a coherent and consistent picture in Einstein's papers in. However, it also gave start to development of theoretical basis of nuclear energetic and nuclear weapons which caused the real threat of humanity self-destruction.

Control Tasks and Questions
1. Characterize the modern scientific theories about principles and levels of world organization. 
2. Describe movement as universal way of world existence and its interpretation on philosophy and movement forms classification.
3. Describe the space and time dimensions of world structure.
4. What are the main differences between social, biological, physical time?
5. Characterize the systematical principle of world organization.
6. Describe the main differences between metaphysical, dialectical and synergetic understanding of world development.
7. Characterize the main theories about objective and subjective dimensions of the world.
8. Characterize the main differences between materialistic and idealistic interpretations of the world and main variants of each of them.
9. What are the differences between monism, dualism and pluralism variants of ontology?
10. Describe the borders, interrelation and integrity of material and ideal components of world.

RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
1. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martin’s Press, 1979. – 768 p.
2. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
3. Miller B. The Fullness of Being / B. Miller. – Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2002. – 175 p.
4. Whitehead A. N. Process and Reality / A. N. Whitehead. – New York, 1979. – 413 p.
5. N.V. Popov, A.A. Zakordonets. Philosophy. Scholarly applicable methods for international students / A.A. Zakordonets, N.V. Popov. Kyiv: Bogomolets National Medical University, 2004. — 72 p.
6. Vermenko A. Yu. Philosophy: [textbook] / A. Yu. Vermenko. – Nizhin : PE Lisenko N.M., 2016.  – 150 p.

Part 8. Philosophical Anthropology and Problems of Human Conscience
Problem of a human being, perception of his essence, possibilities and forms of activity occupies the central place in philosophy. In modern conditions it becomes still more actual in connection with aggravation of global problems of human civilization development. But besides philosophical there is every day and specific-scientific understanding of a human being, which differs from philosophical approach to a human being. For a future doctor, it is the most valuable basis for his humanistic activity.
A human being as a subject of science and philosophy. The history of perception of a human being witnesses complexity and contradiction of the said problem. First of all a human being himself is very complicated. He is both biological and social creature. He is simultaneously studied by tens and hundreds of sciences, first of all natural and socio humanitarian. There cannot be a single science, which studies a human being and it cannot be. The example of medicine is a conclusive proof. A human being possesses certain totality of properties and possibilities: biological, psychological and social. Therefore he becomes an object of studying for many sciences. But they study a human being from different sides. Anatomy and physiology study composition and structure of a human body separately from his functioning. But they do not study social conditions and a human being’s conscious activity. It is philosophy that studies a human being integrally, basing on the results of specific-scientific perception. It must overcome that contradiction of perception, which regularly forms because of narrow approaches of different sciences to a human being. Such narrow approaches gave birth to two general methodological approaches: biological and sociological. If the first one tries to understand a human being’s nature and essence as a biological creature, then the second one – just as a social creature. Both approaches are insufficient and prevent from whole perception of a human being. 
Firstly, such narrowness of approaches breaks integrity of studying a human being and leads to absolutization of one of the sides. Secondly, the do not expose dialectical unity of a human being with the outward world of nature and society, that is prevents from understanding organic unity of natural and social in a human being. Let’s consider three problems of perception a human being, namely: a problem of scientific disclosure of a human being’s nature; a problem of philosophical definition of a human being’s essence; a problem of development (evolutional and historical) of a human being.
Specific-scientific, including medical perception, in the first place, is concentrated on studying corporal organization of a human being, his body. Anatomy, biochemistry, microbiology witness, that a human being is really a biological creature. He consists of cells, organs, systems as everything living. Organic nature of a human being is mutual with living nature, but it is not identical to, say, virus or other animal organisms. It is firstly. Secondly, it reflects the results of thousand year evolution of Homo and a human being’s ability to work, communication, consciousness and perception. And this, in its turn, means that human activity is not identical to vital activity in general, that it is based on the fundamentals of organic nature, but it cannot be led to it. Modern science substantiates total activity of biogenic and sociogenic factors in appearance of Homo in the theory of anthroposociogenesis. Nature in it is regarded as organic unity of natural, biological and social in a human being.
Notion “natural” is derivation of nature and is, first of all, reflection of objective systemic-structural organization of the material world, which includes a society and a human being. Thus, natural is natural conditions of biological and social and general substratum. From this point of view, “Natural in a human being” can be defined as objective, natural substrate organization of Homo. It includes, first of all, such natural characteristics of a human being as his physical-chemical composition, his suitability to natural conditions of existence (gravitation, airing, pH mediums, light, and water, gravitational regimes etc.). It is necessary definitely and consequently to understand, and a doctor can not forget about this. “Biological in a human being”, in contrast to biological in general, reflects hereditary-biotic ability (readiness) of his corporal organization to performing different social functions. The basis of this ability is a genotype of a human being, in which not only biological evolution is reflected but and social history of mankind. Therefore it is so important for a doctor to know medical genetics, in order to fight hereditary illnesses successfully. “Social in a human being” is reflection of his specific peculiarities (abilities) to work, communication, creative work in all branches of human activity on the basis of common to all mankind values of culture and social life. Natural, biological and social are inseparable from each other; they function in unity, influencing each other. But the leading role in this unity belongs to social, as the highest stage of material substance development. This statement is reflected in the proverb “in healthy body there is healthy spirit and healthy spirit is healthy body”. Complicated “nature of a human being” helps to reject biological understanding of a human being (according to L. Feierbach) and also statements concerning its invariability, completeness. There are no biological obstacles for a human being’s social development as personality, but there are biological limits of preserving life and optimal parameters of a human organism functioning. And it is very important to know for a doctor.
Philosophical definition of a human being’s essence is connected with nature of a human being’s nature, but it has its specific contents, its approaches. Integral philosophical approach is important here, which allows arising over empirical, narrow understanding of a human being, to understand him as qualitatively new integrity. There are many contradictory interpretations of a human being in the history of philosophy. Socrates saw the essence of a human being in his ability to self-knowledge. Aristotle called a human being “political animal”, that is social one. Hobbs and Lametrie identified a human being with a machine. Descartes said: “I think, it means that I exist”. Berdyaev distinguished the ability to creative work in a human being. Marx defined essence of a human being as an ensemble of social relations that is exclusively social creature. In all these definitions there is no problem of interconnection of a human being with his natural and social circle. So, they only distinguish a human being’s internal properties (self-knowledge, thinking), and others distinguish complete dependence of a human being on environment (natural and social). Such metaphysical understanding of essence of a human being is based on separation of a human being from his life’s conditions, loss their interconnection.
Modern philosophical understanding of essence of a human being overcomes narrowness of anthropologism and sociologism, and as its basis contents of a human activity, its socio-practical character and diversity of forms are distinguished. It is possible to perceive essence of a human being through perception of a human being’s world, the world of his activities. And activity is initially built on real relations of a human being with the world of his existence. So, a human being is both an author and an actor of his own drama at the same time. Under essence of a human being one should understand an integral system of socially-oriented forms of his activity, directed to provision of conditions and prospects of functioning and development of a human being, a society on the basis of culture and humanism. Hoete said, “If you want to know what you are, start acting”.
Problem of development of a human being is rather complicated as well. First of all, it is necessary to answer the question: how biological evolution of a human being and social development of a society co-ordinate and interact. Science witnesses, that it is incorrect to oppose them, all the more identify them. It is necessary to study connection between them, as it defines panorama of human pathology, what is important for effectiveness of medicine. The second question is the understanding of dialectics of social and individual development of a human being (like phenotypic and ontogenetic development in biology). It is clear that they do not coincide either, but dialectically influence each other, providing both conditions for normal social development of individual personality, and social progress of a society. A human being changes develops and is a dynamic measure of changing the world and himself. Lives of a society and a human being are incommensurable and therefore a society must provide every human being with the right to realize his opportunities and abilities, it is clear, for the sake of progress of a society. Therefore the aim and sense of development of a human being is creation of the best conditions for comprehensive and free development of individual personality, his happiness on the basis of culture, science, and spirituality.
The problem of human activity forms classification cannot be reduced to vital activity of a human being’s organism or activity of technical systems. It is social according to its contents, has realized character and serves satisfaction of a human being’s and society’s needs. The general definition of a human activity is the following: it is fundamentally new, inherent only to a human being, method of interaction with life’s environment, which is in creating favorable conditions of existence by a human being, which are absent in nature;  it is a special method of existence and development of a human being himself, his vital forces and abilities; it is a specific form of a human being’s vital activity, which expediently transforms the world on the basis of mastering available and newly created forms and means of culture.
Typology of a human activity is diverse. In this way, all forms of a human being’s activity, in accordance with the first classification, are divided into activity: in accordance with spiritual-practical mastering of the world and own opportunities (production, social life, moral and art); in accordance with theoretical mastering of the world (in the form of scientific, philosophical, methodological activity). The second classification distinguishes in structure of activity the following types: productive activity, which is creation of new samples of materials, machines, technologies, medicines; reproductive activity, that is review of famous made earlier samples of products or activity, which still have social value. Medical activity, for example, contains much routine work (analyses, injections); real daily activity as unity, synthesis of productive and reproductive constituents of general activity. Medical activity, in this case, is both creative and routine, and it depends on a doctor’s qualification, his understanding his professional duty. Such typology helps to understand human activity according to its contents, and constituents. The human activity can be distinguished in accordance with the following levels: - at the level of a separate human being, collective or society; - at the empirical or theoretical level; - its realization in the different spheres of social life. The last component of the structure of human activity helps to understand interconnection of different spheres of society, its structure.
It is possible and necessary to distinguish the spheres of a society structure, which differ in accordance with the contents of a human activity, its forms and purposes. The basis of a human being’s material-productive activity is his ability to productive labor, with the help of which the most important conditions of life for development of a human being and a society are created and used. A human being’s labor has fundamental character; a human being evolution starts from it. From all work characteristics we can distinguish the following: firstly, labor stands out in the form of a human being’s constant spending of physical, psychological and spiritual forces; secondly, labor stands out as expedient use of human forces, skills, and abilities that presumes preparation for labor, training, subsequent formation of skills, and abilities; thirdly, labor is a source, father of creation of all welfare, used by a human being beyond the labor activity. These characteristics of labor reveal its active, practical side. Sometimes such labor is called “living labor”, since it stands out as demonstration of a certain human being’s energy, one of the components of labor activity process.
Objects of labor stand out as other components, that is things to which living labor applies to and subjects of labor – that is means of labor (machines, mechanisms, automatic lines). They are sometimes called “dead labor”, since all means of labor is nothing but objective living labor, its result, and product, which then takes part in labor process. “Living labor” features active, motive force of labor process, and “dead labor” – passive force. But the more share of dead labor in production, the higher its economical effectiveness. It is more economically to cultivate soil with the help of a tractor, than of a hoe.
Materialist philosophy contends a statement concerning a defining, decisive role of material production in a society’s life, its economical affectivity. Rich countries, first of all, are the industrially developed country. But we must not give priority of technology to a human being. It is important to study interactions between a human being and engineering, in order not to follow technical and technological progress with dangerous professional illnesses and avoid threats of technological accidents like Chernobyl tragedy (1986) type.
Essence of human activity economical form of activities is in providing necessary social conditions of society functioning in interests of people (a family, children, women, pensioners and elderly people, development of education, health protection and culture). It is this form that provides level of “life quality”, indicator of social development of the countries, introduced by United Nations Organization. A society cannot exist, without performing social-economical activity taking into account of humanism and justice. The first condition of economical management is relation of a society with nature – storehouse of all resources and materials of material production. But modern relations of humanity with nature contain serious danger of ecological crisis. Intellect and energy of all peoples, of all countries are necessary to overcome it. For a doctor, care about nature means care about a human being, a patient, because we all need clean water, air, sea, food products etc. Consequence of this situation is constant human search for most effective social forms of coexistence and life of peoples and each people, each family. The important role here belongs to health protection system, medicine, which perform a responsible social task – protection of a human being and his health. The role of treatment – preventive activity of a society and doctors’ corps considerably grows.
Effectiveness of material goods production and social-economical activity can not be reached without a certain system of knowledge about the world and human, without understanding expedience of his activity in the society for each human being. But knowledge is gained in the process of practical and cognitive activity. A human being always perceives not because of curiosity, but for some practical need. During this process he spends his mind, feelings, will, his psychic forces. The role of each of them in spiritual and cognitive activity of a human being is great, and everybody has to learn to use his abilities for solving personal and social needs. Science stands out as a form of a human being’s spiritual-practical activity. It is a specific social institute, whose mission is to provide a human being with clear, objective knowledge. It is in science that human rationality can be seen. This activity must be correlated with all humanity’s culture, with humanism. But along with rational element of consciousness, a human being possesses irrational element (feelings, fear towards unknown, unconsciousness of part of the perceived). We know that a human being is subject to hypnosis, different affects, and phobias, is able to do unreasonable actions. There is a conclusion: any human being‘s cognitive activity shall have humanistic culture, morality in the form of common to all mankind values of social life as his objective criterion.
All forms of a human individual and a social activity have creative character. Creative activity should be understood as a human being’s socially-developed and directed activity on the basis of human culture. Therefore it always has cultural-humanistic measurement. The basis of a human being’s creative activity is: constant perception of nature’s objective laws and a society for providing different forms of activity; and also reflection of humanistic forms of human coexistence, searching them in the historical development of a society. Creative character of a human being’s activity gives sense and value to each human being’s life. Its sense is in walking along his road of life with dignity, having mastered culture of the preceded generations and making his own. Let it be small part of labor and spiritual growth into the treasure-house of culture, in other words, to find his happiness in unity with humanity, in solving its essential problems, in each historical epoch. It is in the deliberate activity that a human being finds his place in life, confirms his social nature, develops himself as a creative, free individuality. Beyond specific activity – there is no a human being, no creative work and self-realization.
Problem of consciousness in philosophy. In the history of culture and philosophy consciousness was defined ambiguously. So, consciousness was defined as super natural phenomenon and motive beginning of all the existing (Hegel’s absolute idea) or as immortal soul or supernatural spirit (in all religions). The second approach lay in reducing consciousness to totality of individual’s all sensations. These are idealistic interpretations of consciousness. Metaphysical materialism regarded consciousness as product of material substance, its attribute, as something substantial, physiological. Dialectical-materialistic approach is based on inadmissibility both identification of consciousness and material substance, and their absolute opposition. It is only possible in gnoseological aspect, when it is necessary for a scientist, a doctor to solve a problem if objective reality, material substance are primary for perception of the world or illness. But in real- substantial aspect both material substance and consciousness are philosophical categories, which reflect existing reality.
Consciousness is the highest specifically human form of reflecting material reality with the purpose of its perception and mastering it. In that way, consciousness provides a human being with knowledge of f the world and its regularities. It is individual and social according to its bearer. Such features are inherent to a human being’s consciousness: ideal, sensible character of knowledge concerning the world, activity, creative work, purposefulness in reflecting reality, social form of functioning. The most important feature of consciousness is also self-consciousness that is realization by each human being himself, his essence in the system of social relations. The way of consciousness existence is speech, language (the national one, first of all).
A human being’s consciousness has certain structure. Firstly, it is provided by its specific organs: five feelings, intellect, will and belief. On this basis, two levels of the world realization: emotional and rational, which is based on specialization of left and right cerebral hemispheres of a human being. Besides, a human being’s psychic sphere is divided into three interconnected levels. The first level is the unconscious one, which becomes apparent in instincts and unconditioned reflexes of human organism. The second level is the subconscious one, the important property of which is accumulation of perception experience, memory (short-term and long-term). And the third level is the conscious one that is actual, direct studying, perception of the world or human actions, which accompany all human being’s conscious life. What loses its actual significance goes to sub consciousness, from which it can be used again if necessary. Everybody can remember his childhood, his distant motherland. 
Interaction of the mentioned levels is extremely important for understanding complexity, antipathy of human consciousness. Unconscious influences the sphere of conscious, but it, in its turn, controls unconscious. Functioning of consciousness as a single phenomenon in a human being’s life is studied by: physiology of HNA (Higher Nervous Activity), neurophysiology, psychology and other sciences. Knowing normal physiology must help you to realize the scientific-physiological fundamentals of consciousness. 
Biological form of material substance motion possesses only forms of psychical reflection of the world, and social form of material substance motion required formation of social form of human consciousness. It became a necessary moment of existence of a society’s self-regulation. And it means that consciousness cannot appear earlier than appearance of a society. Modern science data witness decisive role of a human being’s work and his specialization in changing his psychical activity, its enrichment on the basis of conscious attitude to reality. First of all, ability to think was formed, that is handling images of objects in a human being’s activity. But for securing working operations in thinking there was a necessity in speech (a language) and it was formed. Speech promoted appearance of succession in developing consciousness, preserving experience of the preceding generations of people. Social character of consciousness is that it is a product of a society’s development, but not a separate human being, a product of different forms of activity of many generations of people and their historical development.
Forms of ideal reflection of objects and phenomena of the material world are: sensations, perceptions and notions, in which human knowledge about the world is fixed. They do not have physical properties. They exist not in the form of objects but in the form of ideal images and thoughts about the objects of reality. K. Marx said that ideal is “Material, put into human head and transformed in it“. Therefore, consciousness is ideal by its nature, by its essence. Mechanism of appearance and functioning of consciousness as ideal reflection of the world is that a human being needs subjective, ideal image of his subsequent activity, practical need. Consciousness creatively reflects the world in the form of intentions, ideas, and purposes of a human being’s activity. The general conclusion is the following: a human being is a conscious creature, therefore his behavior, actions and intentions must be comprehended, correlate with other people’s actions and not to contradict to social life’s harmony.
In the social-philosophical literature the problem of political and legal consciousness is generalized in the concept of civil culture. It consists of political, legal, ethical, aesthetic views and other values that reflect person’s realizations of civil rights and duties. The civil culture reflects the moral attitude to one peoples’ domination above the others, legal acceptance or rejection of power. Political and legal consciousness has two levels of reflection of the political and legal reality: the first is a level of its emotional reflection of it in political feelings, emotional reactions on political or legal phenomena, and the second is the level of an ideological-theoretical reflection of political and legal regulations and systems of knowledge. These are political and legal doctrines reflecting historical experience of the mankind in a search of adequate political and legal ideas and theories.
Deep understanding of these realities and conscious realization of their main principles is the basis of civil culture and behavior of the present-day person and the citizen. A man possesses not only hands but also intellect; he owns not only physical but also spiritual force. The spiritual values produced by the mankind during the history were the most valuable treasures of the society. Only mastering these treasures makes us people, gives force to overcome difficulties and gives belief in the reasonable future.
Wide concepts are used for characteristics of public consciousness: "spiritual life of the society", "spiritual production and culture", "public consciousness". Each of them has the specific contents, explaining an antithesis "material and spiritual". So, the concept "spiritual life of the society" acts as an antithesis to concept "material life of a society". It covers all kinds of spiritual production and spiritual relations between people in the society. Thus, it contains the contents of concepts "spiritual culture of the society" and "public consciousness". Notion "the spiritual culture" reflects the products of spiritual production and process of their production, distribution and use of spiritual values. It consists of educational system, national language and all means of distribution of spiritual values. Only then, the person becomes a social being when he masters spiritual culture of the mankind, but not only national one.
As far as notion "public consciousness" goes, its contents include functional system of ideas, theories, moods and views, social feelings and traditions of people in each historical epoch. It is a reflection of their real process of life with all its contradictions. The public consciousness is based on the spiritual culture, its achievements (as moral and legal norms, scientific theories, literary compositions and the art). The essence of the spiritual sphere consists of ensuring normal functioning and development of the society. Its tasks are: cognitive, due to it the person learns real processes of social existence of people, nations and nationalities; and mental, as it creates nation’s world perception and attitude in the form of fundamental ethical standards and moral values of peoples. Two social functions of spiritual sphere are built on the following: an information function due to which the unity of people and its identity in a historical time are achieved; a communicative function that provides the formation of the sociality, i.e. specificity of a human society. Material carriers of the given functions are the national language and the national culture, and also a social memory (of material and ideal contents).
The public consciousness is a kind of super individual collective mind having complex structure with the regard of specific attributes. Firstly, the public consciousness on depth and a level of reflection of a real process of the life of the society is subdivided into every day, daily and scientific-theoretical consciousness. The everyday consciousness is based on an empirical thinking and on a certain life experience of the individual. This is not a systematized, spontaneous world perception, which does not reveal an essence; it only reflects a phenomenon of real processes. The main elements of such consciousness are the so-called common sense ("so all people do"), general norms of morals and customs. But on the basis of everyday consciousness the deep level of reality reflection (scientific-theoretical) is formed. It is directed to disclose a latent essence of processes and phenomena, to understand the regulations of their functioning. On this basis various sciences, including scientific medicine (there are over 300 separate specializations and specialties) are created. Sciences function due to scientific knowledge which is the main carrier of this level of public consciousness namely. The scientific-theoretical level of consciousness is a sort of the locomotive, driving force of all people’s knowledge and concepts.
Secondly, the structure of public consciousness can be considered depending on the way of reflection of a real process of life. Public psychology and ideology are formed on this basis.  The public psychology reflects the emotional attitude of big groups of people to public processes, their emotional stereotypes of behavior and activity. The public psychology is characterized by that it directly reflects conditions of life of people spontaneously, without theoretical consciousness. The interpretation or denying of acts, moods and derivates causes need for theoretical consciousness in the form of public ideology. It is a system of ideas and views on real process of people’s life, reflecting interests of big groups of people, a certain social group, a class. The public ideology and social psychology are in dialectic unity and interaction.
Thirdly, the structure of public consciousness depends on what is the subject of reflection and which means of its reflection are. Specific forms of public consciousness are formed on this basis. A variety of processes of the real world demands various forms of reflection. Public, household-economic life is reflected by the economic form of public consciousness. Politics is reflected by a political form of consciousness (it has been mentioned earlier). Religion and religious life is reflected in a religious form of consciousness. Moral, science, philosophy are reflected in ethical, scientific, philosophical forms of public consciousness accordingly. But the main difference between them lies in the use of specific means of reflection of their spheres of real life. The religious consciousness uses fantastic images and ideas about the world. Scientific, economic, political forms of consciousness operate with scientific, economic and political notions and theories. The last feature includes the answer to the question who is the carrier of public consciousness is. According to which the structure of public consciousness can be studied. The structure of public consciousness consists of: an individual consciousness of each person; consciousness of separate groups of people (nation, society of doctors); consciousness of the society as a whole (spiritual culture, science, including medical, universal values).
What is the dialectics of social existence and consciousness? It is determined by two fundamental regulations. It is natural, that they are based on the recognition of the unity of social existence and consciousness as in historical so in real modern plans. But this unity has opposite tendencies. They also make these two regulations. The first and determining regulation is the recognition of dependence and derivativeness of public consciousness from existence. It discloses the essence of material basis of public life of the society. Therefore, the law of public knowledge dependence from social existence is called a general sociological law i.e. that works through all history of the human society. The second regulation is a reverse active influence of public consciousness on a social existence.
Thus, the sociological role of public consciousness is disclosed. Sometimes this law is named the law of relative independence of public consciousness. Ideas and theories (products of consciousness) can live in various historical conditions; all the forms of public consciousness, irrespective of existence, interact among themselves: and, at last, some forms of public consciousness can either lag behind from social existence (ethical, religious) or, on the contrary, be ahead of it (scientific, theoretical consciousness).
Public consciousness as a functional subsystem of the human society is a dialectic unity of myths, utopias, common sense, scientific theories and various errors. Each form of public consciousness displays a certain sphere or a side of public life by its specific means and, at the same time, each has its structure, elements of which are: 1) relations between people (and their associations); 2) a reflection of these real social relations in emotions, theories, doctrines, people’s views; 3) a presence of special organizations and establishments which provide functioning and development of forms of public consciousness and spiritual culture as a whole.
Let's consider a specificity of a structure of ethical consciousness more particularly. Its specificity consists of the reflection of human characteristics of the society and its person especially – its morals, moral norms of human relations. The contents of this form are relations between sexes, between children and parents, between people and nature in general, relations with the state from the point of view of the concrete interpretation that there is truth, good deeds, evil, happiness, honor, dignity and justice. These concepts were generated by the history of the society’s development and reflected humanistic culture of the mankind. Morality carries out its social purpose due to two functions: a regulating function, presenting morality and its rules, settles the activity and the behavior of the person in the society; an educational one, following moral standards and rules, promotes effective activity and behavior of the person, and therefore they should be mastered. In a profession of medicine man or physician the common moral requirements are supplemented with the rules of a professional etiquette and medical ethics. The main essence of them is formulated by Hippocrates in the formula "Do not do too much harm!".
The second form of public consciousness is an aesthetic consciousness that also plays an important role in the reflection of the specificity of the human society. Its social destination consists of the reflection of the world of human activity from the positions of categories such as the beautiful and the disgusting, the high and the low, the heroic, the tragic and the comic (ridiculous). These categories form the important attitude of the person to the world, reflecting aspirations and ideals of the mankind. Real aesthetic relations are shown in the form of emotional perception of the world, in estimations of the real phenomena or of people’s behavior. It is reflected in the contents and forms of art (literature, dance, painting, music, sculpture and folk arts). The aesthetic form of consciousness also carries out two functions: cognitive and educational. The first one provides each person with knowledge of canons of the aesthetic attitude to the reality in different historical epochs. The second promotes the education of people of the certain emotional attitude to the world, its problems and subjects of action through aesthetic forms: artistic images (a hero or a rascal in the literature, a melody in music, color and image in painting).
The scientific form of public consciousness had been mentioned earlier. It is also necessary to pay attention to that the present stage of social development has caused a need to form a new kind of consciousness as ecological one. The essence of this form consists of the comprehension of that the society should build its activity in view of preservation of the natural environment. And by saving the nature, we save also the person that the doctor should constantly think about.

Control Tasks and Questions
1. Characterize the human being as a universal object of philosophical research.
2. Describe the main definitions of human being in history of philosophy.
3. Characterize the main philosophical and scientific concepts of human origin and anthropogenesis.
4. Characterize the modern philosophical and scientific concepts of interrelation of biological, social and spiritual components in a human essence.
5. Characterize the modern philosophical understanding of interrelation main types of human activity with the special reference to medical activity social necessity and responsibility.
6. Describe the conscience as specific human ability.
7. Name and describe the main scientific and religious theories about nature and genesis of conscience, its interrelations with language and labor.
8. Describe the main components of conscience structure (its main spheres: knowledge, emotions, will and motivations).
9. Characterize the main theories about levels of human psychics (unconscious, conscious, over-conscious) interaction.
10. Describe the social and individual aspects of interrelations between conscience, practice and experience.
11. Characterize the main functions of self-conscience (self-control, self-evaluation, self-acknowledgement).
12. Describe the social conscience and its forms and functions. 
13. Characterize the interrelation between social and individual conscience.
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
1. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy / B. Russell. – New York : Simon and Schuster, 1961. – 837 p.
2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martins Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. Dewey J. Theory of the Moral Life / J. Dewey. – New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1960. – 145 p.
5. Fromm E. To Have or to Be?/ E. Fromm. – London, New York : Continuum, 1968. – 182 p.
6. Fromm E. Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics / E. Fromm. – New York, Toronto: Henry Holt and Company, 1990. – 272 p.
7. Marcuse H. One-Dimensional Man/ H. Marcuse. – Boston : Beacon Press, 1966. – 182 p.
8. Whitehead A. N. Process and Reality / A. N. Whitehead. – New York, 1979. – 413 p.
10. N.V. Popov, A.A. Zakordonets. Philosophy. Scholarly applicable methods for international students / A.A. Zakordonets, N.V. Popov. Kyiv: Bogomolets National Medical University, 2004. — 72 p.

Part 9. Gnoseology
Cognition of the world by man and formation of cognitive manifestations begin with the sensual contact with the world, its reflection by perception and "living contemplation". Main forms or elements of this sensual level of knowledge are feeling, perception and sensual image or presentation. All these forms, as well as cognition on the whole, are mediated and conditioned by practice, and cannot be reduced to passive sensuality of the isolated individual, as it was done by metaphysical materialism. Materialist philosophy claims that the basis of sensual reflection is both individual and social perception of practical transformation of world by subject, mastering by him, which is based on results of previous stages of development of cognition practice and theory, accumulated in material and spiritual culture.
Feeling is a reflection in human mind of separate property (or very few properties) of the object or phenomenon formed as a result of their direct influence on the human organs of senses. Feelings are those channels which link subject with an outer world. Feeling as the source of cognition gives not the integral description of reality, but only its one-sided picture, which is the result of the direct influence of only certain properties and aspects of the objects. Perception is more advanced form of reflection. Perception is simultaneous reflection in human mind of two or more properties of the object or phenomenon of which exactly as feeling is formed as a result of their direct influence on the human organs of senses. Perception provides the integral, multidimensional perceptible appearance of reality, which arises up on the basis of feelings, but it is still not stored in memory for long period of time. This form of perceptible reflection of reality is often described as performing two associated functions: cognitive and regulatory. A cognitive function exposes properties and structure of the objects, and regulatory function sends the practical activity of subject in accordance with these properties of the objects. Perception is an active and selective process, it represents the unity with comprehensive descriptions of the object and perceptive abilities of the subject formed both by his previous life experience and his plans for future, interests, goals, aspirations, hopes. Feeling and perception, although they arise in the process of cognition on the basis of knowledge about the internal and external properties of reality, are the forms of sensual reflection of specific and individual situation of interaction between object and person, and so their results require a transition to a higher form of presentation.
Presentation (or sensual image, or general idea) is a final form of sensual and perceptible reflection of reality, which reproduces all the properties of the object or phenomenon which can be stored in memory for the long period of time after the contact between subject and object took place. Presentation is not just the perceptible copy of the object created by human organs of senses but the generalized, selective and creative reflection of reality which allows creating the elements of new picture of reality. However, this causes the increased possibility of mistaken in the process of combining elements of sensual knowledge in new sensual image and much the stronger need in proper checking out the true or wrong character of sensual image in comparison with quite elementary forms of feeling and perception where typically only disease of senses organs can lead to mistaken in reality perception. The sensual and perceptible reflection of reality objects and phenomena is the basic source of any knowledge about them, as already noted. However, the selection of perceptible cognition as an initial stage and source of cognition is only valid, when the question about the most general source of human knowledge of reality is being decided, as modern education allows students to obtain many elements of knowledge in pure theoretic form and only later test them in practice. Generally, the perceptible reflection assumes the status of useful and veritable knowledge only, when it functions in organic unity with the activity of logical thought, is influenced and corrected by its general laws and methods, and is also based on practice as main source and criterion of truth of all the knowledge.
Perceptible reflection and its basic forms, although are the necessary sides of cognition, are limited in the ability to give veritable knowledge, since the perceivable given object always experiences a direct unity with the subject. Therefore, the objective knowledge about the reality (which is regardless of the subject) is achieved by the development of cognition forms and subsequent accumulation, comparison and mutual check out of their results by large enough groups or even generations of humans.
This higher level of knowledge is provided by rational cognition, main forms of which are notion (term), judgment and logical conclusion. Rational thought is a process of active, purposeful, general, mediated, substantial and systemic reconstruction of reality and solving problems of its creative transformation in such logical forms as concepts, judgments, conclusions, categories.
Notion (term) is a form of rational cognition, in which the essence of an object is presented in generalized form and its comprehensive explanation is given in the shortest volume possible (e.g. words of common language or special symbols in chemistry, physics, mathematics and so on). Notion is formed on the basis of communication between humans and their interaction on practical activity, since in the process of practice a subject can determine the essential and nonessential aspects of reality objects and in communication it is possible to determine the minimum volume of term which allows it to remain recognizable by other humans. The objects and phenomena are represented in their dialectical interactions, so describing them system of terms and notions (terminology) must also be mobile, flexible and dialectical. The change of notions is the result of change of our knowledge about natural or social reality that is represented in notions. If new knowledge is not possible to function properly in the limits of the old notions systems, only then and there will arise the need and possibility of change of notions, clarification of their content and sphere of appliance or creation of new terms (this principle is based on the medieval rule of “razor of William of Ockham” — “do not multiply existence over necessity”).
Judgment is the elementary and simplest form of combination of notions required to properly formulate and effectively use logical form of thought, in which something is affirmed or is denied in relation to the object of cognition. In fact, the interaction between notions and so between objects described in them is expressed in judgments and systems or combinations of them. The use of typical logical judgments is very effective way to formalize the process of thinking and so to reduce the time required for it and the possibility of mistaken. In the situations of insufficient volume of previously acquired knowledge about objects or when human thinking must develop new ways of interaction with objects and terms describing them the system of traditional judgments may be ineffective and logical conclusions are used instead.
Logical conclusion (e.g. deduction) is such logical process, when a new knowledge about reality is formed on the basis of new, more appropriate, substantial and effective combination of terms and judgments describing interacting objects of reality. According to the way of obtaining the new knowledge, conclusions can be divided into the following basic types: inductive logical conclusion in which human thought moves from the description of less general features of objects and types of their interaction to more and more general; deductive logical conclusion in which human thought moves from the description of most general features of objects and types of their interaction to less and less general; conclusion by analogy, during which the conclusion about similarity or difference of all or at least main properties of compared objects can be made on the basis of similarity or difference of some exactly exposed properties of row of compared objects and so on.
Categories (first of all, philosophical categories as most general of all of them) play an important role in functioning and development of rational cognition and thought. Categories are the most general and universal terms which are used to describe and reflect most common properties of the largest classes of objects, processes and their interactions. Categories are the forms of thought, which function as specific instruments, means and tools of cognition, which reflect most general and essential in the objects and also carry out the synthesis of content of cognition in logical forms: notions, judgments and deductions. Along with the development and improvement of socio-historical practice and cognition, the structure of categories of thought gets more complicated and improved: the number of categories increases, their content and intercommunication changes. The specificity of categories as the universal forms of thought and cognition, unlike the notions of specific sciences or professional activity spheres, consists in the fact that they are the universal tools and means of cognition, which continue to play an important methodological and worldview role over borders of individual science or individual sphere of human activity. Categories, first of all, are the forms of logical thought and rational cognition, but human consciousness as a whole system, or perceptible reflection as subsystem of it can not function properly without categories as well. The perceptible reflection can provide the adequate knowledge about reality only in unity with the rational cognition, which reflects the most essential properties of objects and cause-effect links of reality in the form of categories.
The specificity of rational cognition, therefore, lies in the following. First of all, a subject can go beyond the framework of the directly given and experienced in sensual perception properties of the objects due to it. Secondly, rational cognition makes it possible to understand and describe reality in its independence from a subject of cognition. Thirdly, the rational cognition helps a subject to learn about the world not only as the result of the personal experience, but on the basis of all the historical experience of humanity, fixed in language, theoretical knowledge and artifacts of material and spiritual culture. On the other hand, rational cognition can function only in unity with perceptible cognition as its basis. Rational and perceptible (feeling, sensitive) are dialectically associated sides of the single cognitive process, which only in unity can provide an adequate picture of reality. Every moment of perceptible reflection in cognition is mediated by thought. In same way, the rational cognition gets improvement and correction of its content from perceptible data which provide the permanent link between thought and objects of reality. In thought a person cannot completely depart from the evident, since without it the effective projection of our knowledge on reality by practical activity is impossible.
The problem of truth of knowledge is the main problem of the theory of perception. Mankind can succeed in practical activity only using true knowledge. So, what type of knowledge is true? There were opposite viewpoints in the history of philosophy concerning this problem. The materialists consider the truth as an adequate reflection of objective world in subject's conscience (Democritus, Aristotle, Bacon, Feuerbach, Marx, etc.). The idealists determine truth as the unchangeable property of ideal objects (Plato), an agreement of thinking with itself (Kant), or verifying of thought by sensations (Hume, Russell). Dialectical materialism states, that truth is knowledge that adequately reflects an object in subject's mind. Truth has objective nature according to its source and character. In other words, the truth contains knowledge that does not depend on individual human mind. Of course, it does not mean that truth is absolutely independent on a man. It is the product of perceptive activity and can be detected in the following forms: notions, opinions and theories. It means that the truth is objective by its contents and subjective by its form. Recognition of the objective contents of the truth is the basis for its scientific materialistic comprehension.
Perception of truth is not a single time action. It appears, opens and develops. Denial of the old truth and formation of the new true knowledge takes time. It's impossible to comprehend the process of discovering and development of truth without considering such points of perception process and their correlation as the absolute and the relative knowledge, the specific and the abstract one. Dialectical and metaphysical approaches oppose each other in relation to truth understanding. The supporters of metaphysics comprehend truth as eternal, complete, absolute knowledge, as a collection of permanent theses. The supporters of dialectics adhere to the opposite point of view, according to which human knowledge is constantly developing and changing just like the world. Consequently, both truth and the result of perception activity cannot but develop. Truth is not lifeless photographic reflection of the world, but the process of reflection. Mankind will never say "Stop, there's nothing left to perceive, it's time to use gained knowledge". Hence, one can realize that individual, professional, generation's or general social knowledge about the world can be relative only.
Relative truth is a sort of incomplete and/or inexact knowledge reflecting the object generally adequate but not accurately. Any scientific theory or medical diagnosis is relative truth, which might be specified after some time. But our knowledge always contains the element of the exact knowledge. This element is not denied by the subsequent course of perception. This sort of contents, which cannot be denied by the subsequent development of science, constitutes the contents of absolute truth. For instance, any disease has its cause − this is an absolute truth for the medical science. The absolute and relative parts of truth exist inseparably, since they are the parts of a single objective truth. The exaggeration of the absolute moment in truth leads to dogmatism which denies historical changes in knowledge while the exaggeration of the relative moment in truth leads to relativism which states that all knowledge is subjective, individual and relative as a product of activity of perceiving subject.
In addition, truth is always in the process of development, therefore, it has historical conditioned but not the abstract nature. All knowledge at a certain historical stage of its development represents an object at a certain stage of its development. There is no truth which is convenient or effective for all times and all stages of the objective world development. The dependence of truth on the specific conditions of perception can be found at any stage. Any disease has different symptoms in different conditions (and for different patients). Therefore, any medical diagnosis must be an individual specific diagnosis of the patient. It is also impossible to comprehend the process of perception without taking into account the errors caused by both the complexity of perceived objects and the narrowness of the means and methods of perception used. Therefore, truth and error are the dialectical oppositions of perception. They transfer into each other, deny one another, but they cannot exist without each other. Error is a necessary element of perception caused by the incompleteness of our knowledge and narrowness of the object representation. But the direction of perception development indicates that any error has a specific historical character, it gives its place to truth as a result of development, perception and social needs of perception.
How can error and truth be distinguished? Is there a criterion for truth accuracy? Yes, there is. But the way to this conclusion has been marked by the opposite attitudes in the history of philosophy. The idealists deny the very possibility of existence of objective criterion for truth and claim the intellect to be its only criterion. This approach leads to subjectivism asserting that truth depends on a human being (be him stupid, sly or deceitful). The materialists reject the subjectivist criterion of truth and consider the social historical truth to be the objective criterion of truth. At the same time, it has already been stated, that practice is the human purposeful material activity, in the course of which the comparison of truth and error occurs, as well as their correctness, effectiveness and profit evaluation. Practice is a common criterion of truth for all spheres of human spiritual and practical activity (including medicine). But the criterion of practice is contradictory, since it is both absolute and relative. It is absolutely, because practice is the only common criterion. It is relative, since practice is always a historical or even individual one, therefore, truth can be proved in a specific historical way. But the relative nature of the practice criterion does not result in pessimism. Mankind constantly satisfies its needs in knowledge validity by practical activity and can believe in future success.
Control Tasks and Questions
1. Put down the general characteristics of gnoseology (theory of cognitive process) as a branch of philosophy, its object and main categories.
2. Describe the main principles of modern scientific gnoseology (objectivism, the principal probability of true knowledge, active and creative reflection of the world, unity between theory and practice, historicism).
3. Characterize the main theories of historical, social and cultural determination of cognitive process.
4. Describe the creation as constructive principle of cognitive process and synthesizing nature of creation.
5. Put down the characteristic of sensual level of cognitive process, its forms and specific features.
6. Describe the rational level of cognitive process, its forms and specifc features.
7. Characterize the interrelation and unity between sensual and rational levels of cognitive process.
8. Name and describe the main ideas and representatives of sensualist (empiric) and rationalist philosophy schools.
9. Describe the main irrational and rational components of cognitive process (first of all, intuition and creative imagination).
10. Characterize the main philosophical approaches to problem of true knowledge, objective and subjective truth, absolute and relative truth.
11. Describe the main differences between monological (of classical science) and polyphonic (philosophical) truth.
12. Characterize the main theories of truth criteria, especially of interaction between cognitive process and practice.
13. Name and describe the most characteristic features of science, distinguishing it from other types of world outlook.
14. Describe the general structure and social role of science.
15. Describe the interrelations between science, philosophy and religion.
16. Describe the empiric and theoretic levels of scientific cognitive process, their structure and methods.
17. Describe the science as specific social sphere and activity form.
18. Characterize the main theories of dynamics of science: classical — non-classical — postclassical science.
19. Describe the main laws of science development, expressed in theory of scientific paradigms and scientific revolutions. 
20. Describe the cultural aspect of science, main historical and modern variants of ideals and ethics of science.
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
1. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martins Press, 1979. – 768 p.
2. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
3. Nisbet R. Prejudices. A Philosophical Dictionary/ R. Nisbet. – Cambridge et al.: Harvard University Press, 1982. -348 p.
4. Popper K. Science: Conjectures and Refutations. The Growth of Scientific Knowledge/ K. Popper. – London : Routledge, 1963. – 45 p.
5. Williams C. J. F. Being, Identity, and Truth / C. J. F. Williams. – Clarendon : Clarendon Press, 1992. – 240 p.
6. Woolgar S. Science: The Very Idea / S. Woolgar. – London, New York, 1988. – 160 p.
10. N.V. Popov, A.A. Zakordonets. Philosophy. Scholarly applicable methods for international students / A.A. Zakordonets, N.V. Popov. Kyiv: Bogomolets National Medical University, 2004. — 72 p.
11. Vermenko A. Yu. Philosophy: [textbook] / A. Yu. Vermenko. – Nizhin : PE Lisenko N.M., 2016.  – 150 p.

Part 10. Philosophical Aspects of Methodology
The general concept of methodology. The world presents us with a picture of an infinite diversity of properties, connections and events. This kaleidoscope of impressions must be permeated by an organizing principle, a certain method, that is to say, by certain regulative techniques and means of the practical and theoretical mastering of reality. Practical and theoretical activities follow different methods. The former indicate the ways of doing things and corresponding human skills that have been historically formed and socially established in the instruments of labor. The latter characterize the modes of activity of the mind resulting in the finding truth and the correct, rational solution of problems.
A methodology is a system of principles and general ways of organizing and structuring theoretical and practical activity, and also the theory of this system. Genetically methods go back far into the past, when our distant ancestors were acquiring, generalizing and handing down to new generations their skills and means of influencing nature, the forms of organizing labor and communication. As philosophy emerged, methodology became a special target of cognition and could be defined as a system of socially approved rules and standards of intellectual and practical activity. These rules and standards had to be aligned with the objective logic of events, with the properties and laws of phenomena. The problems of accumulating and transmitting experience called for a certain formalization of the principles and precepts, the techniques and operations involved in activity itself. For example, in ancient Egypt geometry emerged in the form of methodologically significant precepts concerning the measuring procedure for the division of land. An important role in this process was played by training for labor operations, their sequence, and the choice of the most effective ways of doing things.
With the development of production, technology, art, and the elements of science and culture, methodology becomes the target of theoretical thought, whose specific form is the philosophical comprehension of the principles of organization and regulation of cognitive activity, its conditions, structure and content. For example, in the work of Heraclites "knowledge of many things" is contrasted to reason, the latter being a particularly reliable means of understanding the dialectics of the universe — the universal Logos — and is to be distinguished from the diversity of the "opinions" and legends acquired by unreliable means. The rules of reasoning, of effective proof, the role of language as a means of cognition were the subject of special inquiry in the philosophy - of the Greek Sophists (Protagoras and others). Socrates, Plato and Aristotle occupy a special place in discussion of the problems of methodology. Socrates, for example, gave priority to the dialogical nature of thinking as the joint attainment of truth through collation of different notions and concepts, their comparison, analysis, definition and so on. He regarded his theory of Proceeding by means of induction from vague notions to clearly defined general concepts as a method of Perfecting the art of living, of achieving virtue; logical operations were subordinated to ethical aims. According to Socrates, the acquisition of true knowledge should serve action with a moral purpose. The purpose should be determined by means of appropriately organized work of the intellect. This Socratic principle had a deep influence on various trends in the evolution of methodology, especially on the teaching of Plato, who developed a dialectics of concepts and categories the purpose of which was to find the principle in everything. In order to achieve this, our thoughts should move according to the objective logic of the objects under consideration as the embodiments of incorporeal essences. The world of these essences, or ideas, was also regarded as a realm of beauty, of the good which the soul could attain through strenuous effort.
Assuming like Plato that the object of true knowledge was the universal, Aristotle taught that this universal was to be discovered by investigating individual, empirically given things. The methodology of such research is set forth in Aristotle's logic, which closely analyses the principles for defining a term or constructing a statement, the rules of inference and proof, the role of induction and deduction in attaining truth, and so on Aristotle's aesthetics expounds the principles of creativity and analysis in works of art He also gives us a methodologically important elaboration of the theory of categories as the organizing forms of cognition and their dialectics.
Until modern times, however, the problems of methodology had no independent place in the system of knowledge and arose only in the context of logical and natural philosophical arguments. Scientific progress is not limited to the accumulation of knowledge. It is also a process of evolving new means of seeking knowledge. The rapid advance of natural science called for radical changes in methodology. This need was reflected in new principles of methodology and corresponding philosophical ideas, both rationalistic and empirical directed against scholasticism. The principles of mechanics marked a breakthrough in methodology. According to Galileo, scientific knowledge, by uniting the inductive and deductive methods, should be based on planned, accurate mental and practical experiment
In Descartes books the problem of methodology is central. Methodology is required to establish on what basis and by what methods new knowledge may be obtained. Descartes worked out the rules of the rationalistic method, the first rule being the demand that only propositions that are clearly and distinctly comprehensible may be accepted as true. The first principles are axiomatic knowledge, that is, ideas perceived intuitively by reason, without any proof. From these immediately perceived propositions new knowledge is deduced by means of deductive proof. This assumes the breaking down of complex problems into more specific and comprehensible problems and a strictly logical advance from the known to the unknown.
Another line in methodology was represented at this time by English empiricism, which sought to devise modes of thought that would help to build a strictly experimental science guided by proofs of scientific truths arrived at through induction.
The limitations of both trends were revealed by German classical philosophy, which produced a searching analysis of the conditions of cognition, its forms and organizing principles. In contrast to mechanistic methodology, which metaphysically interpreted the ways and means of cognition, classical German Philosophy developed a dialectical methodology in idealistic forms.
Kant produced a critical analysis of the structure and types of man's cognitive abilities and defined the constructive and regulative principles of cognition and the relationship between its form and content Whereas Descartes initial methodological principle was to subject everything to doubt in order to obtain sound and unquestionably authentic knowledge and Hume had doubted the very fact of the existence of the world, for Kant a critical attitude to present knowledge was the methodological basis for overcoming dogmatic and metaphysical views of the world- His work was aimed against both dogmatism and skepticism and sought to defend the principle of the authenticity and general significance of knowledge. Dualism and apriorism however, prevented consistent realization of this principle.
In Kant’s analysis of the process of cognition there were elements of dialectics. These were developed on a higher plane by Hegel, whose philosophy took the form of a universal method of cognition and of intellectual activity in general. The categories and laws of dialectics evolved by Hegel provided a system of thought that made it possible to investigate the interconnection and contradictions between being and thinking, the dialectics of the development of human culture, from a new standpoint based on the principle of historicism Foremost in Hegel's methodology is the principle of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, that is, from the general and limited forms of sensuality and rational judgments to analytical and highly meaningful concepts, and thence to a system of concepts revealing the object to the foil extent of its essential and, in this sense, concrete characteristics.
The achievements of the methodologies of preceding periods were generalized and reviewed on a consistently materialist basis in Marxist Philosophy, enriched by the latest advances in science and social practice. The dialectical method was radically revised. From being a method and analysis of forms of knowledge in themselves, regardless of reality and the objective laws of its development, it became a method of the fullest and most meaningful investigation of this development, an instrument not only of theoretical cognition but also of revolutionary transformation of reality. In the methodology of Marxism spontaneously dialectical methods of thought, which had stimulated progress in the natural and social sciences, acquired their theoretical substantiation. This methodology clarifies the nature of the relationship between theoretical and empirical knowledge, and also the role of practice in organizing both forms of cognition.
The relationship between theory and method. Whereas theory is the result of a process of cognition that reproduces a certain fragment of existence, methodology is a way of obtaining and building up such knowledge. Theory characterizes knowledge itself, its structure, content and the degree to which it corresponds to the object; method characterizes the activity involved in acquiring knowledge. It characterizes the conditions for obtaining true knowledge. In practice, the distinction between theory and method may sometimes be functional having taken shape as a theoretical result of past inquiry, method acts as the point of departure and condition for further investigation. Thus the law of the conservation of matter and energy as a theoretical principle expressing the fundamental condition for the existence of the world is simultaneously a methodological requirement for the investigation of any phenomenon. The methodological principle of the determinist explanation of the world is the organizing principle of die corresponding physical biological and social theories. After being tested by social practice, these theories in their turn may perform a methodological function, that is, serve as a guiding principle in further research.
The methodology of Marxism has a universal character and may be concretized when applied to various spheres of human activity according to their conditions and aims. Whereas the concept of methodology was at one time mainly concerned with cognitive activity (with the result that the methodology of science was better developed), the new approach to methodology established by Marxism has made it possible to expand its sphere of application and provide a philosophical substantiation for the ways and means of organizing the whole gamut of forms of human activity. The specific nature of these forms calls for methods corresponding to the objects that are studied and transformed. In the sphere of art, for example, such a method is the realistic method, portraying reality with all its contradictions and perspectives.
The effectiveness of a method is judged mainly by its correspondence to the object concerned. In what way does the truth of a theory differ from that of a method? Theory relates only to its object and is characterized by the degree to which it truly reproduces that object. But a method may be true—in the sense of effective—in one cognitive situation, while leading to false conclusions in another. The methods of physics are applicable to physical reality, including those cases when it is part of biological objects. If there is a diversity of methods than the problem of choosing one and assessing it as a possible way of solving specific theoretical and practical problems inevitably arises. This gives methodology an axiological (value) aspect and prompts as to assess methods from the standpoint of both truth and effectiveness. Though methods may differ in quality' they all have a common basis in the integral dialectical-materialist methodology
Hierarchy of methods. It is important to sort out the relationship between Philosophical methodology and the complex hierarchy of general scientific and specific ways and techniques of activity in material and intellectual production organized at various levels. At the philosophical level methodology actually functions not in the form of a rigid system of standards, "prescriptions" and techniques as such an interpretation would inevitably lead to dogmatism but as a general system of assumptions and guideline of human activity, world-view being most vital of them Dialectical and historical materialism is such a general system. World-view provides the assumption and the basis of methodology. Philosophy cannot, for example, give physics specific methods for studying quantum mechanics. But it is concerned with the general approach to discovery of truth in physics, ft deals not with the "tactics" of the research process, but with the strategy in the battle for truth.
One must first master Universal Philosophical principles, and then the particulars of the various levels are more easily assimilated. If we go about things in the opposite order we cannot properly master either the one or the other. Philosophical methods "work" in science not directly but mediated by other more specific methods. For example, the principle of historicism as a universal method evolved by philosophy has in biology taken the form of evolution theory as the methodological basis of the modem biological disciplines, and in astronomy this same principle has generated a whole set of cosmogonist hypotheses. In Social research dialectical materialism combined with historical materialism performs the function of a method for all the social sciences Methods that have a general scientific character, such as comparison, analysis and synthesis, abstraction, idealization, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, modeling, formalization, induction and deduction, also have to be concretized in each separate science.
In science, methodology often decides the fate of a research project. Different approaches may lead to opposite conclusions being drawn from one and the same factual material. Describing the role of correct method in scientific cognition, philosophers have compared it to a torch illuminating the road for the traveler in darkness. Even a lame man who chooses the right road will arrive ahead of the aimless wanderer. It goes without saying that method in itself cannot guarantee success in research. Not only a good method but stall in applying is required.
A characteristic feature of the development of philosophical thought in the 20th century is the rapid growth of methodological research and the increase of its specific share in the general system of scientific knowledge. This is due to the conversion of science into a direct productive force, to the rapid development of science as a special form of intellectual production and to the differential and integrative processes occurring in it, which has led to the specific changes in the classical disciplines and the appearance of many new ones. The development and perfecting of methods is a crucial element in all scientific progress. Contemporary society is confronted with global problems whose solution demands large-scale programs that can be carried out only through the collaboration of many sciences, programs designed to cope with the problems of ecology, demography, urbanization, space exploration, and so on.
The need thus arises not only to pool the efforts of specialists in various fields, but also to combine scientific data in situations where there is in principle no complete or definite information about the object as a whole, as a system. The deepening of the interconnection of the sciences leads to the results, models and methods of some sciences being increasingly widely used by others that are relatively less developed in the methodological sense and more complex in their object of study, for example, the application of physical and chemical methods in biology, psychology, and medicine. This gives rise to the problem of methods of interdisciplinary research and has led to the evolution of methods that can ensure effective interaction and synthesis of the methods of various sciences and reveal research techniques, a logical apparatus and scientific language for unifying separate concepts and trends and giving them general scientific status. One may cite, for example, the principles of cybernetics with its categories of control, information, feedback, etc.; systems analysis as the further creative development of the principles and categories of dialectics; or the concept of the noosphere of academician V.I. Vemadsky, which has been developed in the idea of a planetary energetic information field. Modern science is becoming more abstract and lends itself more easily to mathematical methods of research. Particularly relevant arc the problems of interpreting the results of research performed with an extensive use of formalization techniques. This has led to the special elaboration of methods interpretation and modeling.
There are several classifications of methodological knowledge. One of the most popular is the division of methodology into substantive and formal methodology. The former includes such problems as the structure of scientific knowledge in general and scientific theory in particular, the laws of the generation, functioning and mutation of scientific theories, the conceptual framework of science and its separate disciplines, the definition of the explanatory patterns accepted in science, the structure and operational composition of the methods of science, the conditions and criteria of really scientific and true character.
The formal aspects of methodology are related to analysis of the language of science, the formal structure of scientific explanation, description and analysis of formal and formalized methods of research, particularly the methods of constructing scientific theories and conditions of their logical truth, the typology of systems of knowledge, and so on. It was the elaboration of this set of problems that raised the question of the logical structure of scientific knowledge and the development of a methodology of science as an independent field of knowledge. This field embraces the whole diversity of methodological and methodic principles and techniques, operations and forms of constructing scientific knowledge, Its highest and definitive level is the philosophical methodology, whose guiding principles organize methodological work both at the general scientific level (including the logical and methodological apparatus applicable to many disciplines) and at the specialized scientific level. Where special methods of research and derivative specific methodical systems are devised and applied. Method is concretized methodology. Through the method of the concrete science if reaches the research desk. The concrete sciences, which are specific in relation to philosophy, may in their turn be methodological in relation to the narrower fields of their specific sphere of knowledge. For example, general biology arms botany, zoology and other narrower disciplines with general methods of research. Relying on philosophy, general biology works out the methodological problems related to all the departments of biological science. This principle is to be found in other sciences as well.
The present-day system of methods in science is as diversified as science itself. We talk, for example, of experimental method, the method of processing empirical data, the method of building scientific theories and their verification, the method of expounding scientific results. So, the classification of methods based on the classification of stages of research activity.
According to another classification, methods are divided into philosophical, general scientific, and special scientific methods. Yet another classification relies on different methods of qualitative and quantitative study of reality. The distinction between methods depending on the forms of causality — determinist and probability methods — is of considerable importance in modern science. For example, in biology dialectics is seen through the prism of general scientific methods (systems analysis, the principles of self-regulation, etc.) in specific research projects through apply Lag special scientific methods and systems of methods (electronic microscopy, the method of tagged atoms, etc.). One or another method makes it possible to know only separate aspects of the object of research. In order to comprehend all the essential aspects of the object, there must be complementarily character of methods. The whole system of methodological knowledge necessarily involves a world-view interpretation of the basis of the research and its results. It should be stressed that general methodology is always at work in the brain of every scientist but, as a rule, it is kept in obscurity, as the intellectual background of a searching mind. This obscurity is sometimes so complete that the scientist may even deny that he acts according to any philosophical methodology, and insist that he is in general free of any philosophy. But this is merely an illusion of the consciousness.
Control Tasks and Questions
1. Characterize the general scientific methods of research: analysis, synthesis, analogical method, abstraction, induction, deduction, axiomatization and model making.
2. What are the main specific features, advantages and problems of computer model making?
3. Describe the main features and varieties of scientific observation and experiment. 
4. Characterize the philosophical methods of cognition: dialectical, historical, phenomenological, hermeneutical.
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
1. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martin’s Press, 1979. – 768 p.
2. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
3. N.V. Popov, A.A. Zakordonets. Philosophy. Scholarly applicable methods for international students / A.A. Zakordonets, N.V. Popov. Kyiv: Bogomolets National Medical University, 2004. — 72 p.
4. Vermenko A. Yu. Philosophy: [textbook] / A. Yu. Vermenko. – Nizhin : PE Lisenko N.M., 2016. – 150 p.

Part 11. Social Philosophy
The detailed review of social philosophy concepts developed in all the periods of philosophy historical development has been given already in the previous chapters of this textbook, so only modern social philosophy ideas will be reviewed in this chapter.
The term social structure, used in a general sense, refers to entities or groups of people in definite relation to each other, to relatively enduring patterns of behavior and relationship within social systems, or to social institutions and norms becoming embedded into social systems in such a way that they shape the behavior of members of those social systems. Social structure is the way in which society is organized into predictable relationships, patterns of social interaction (the way in which people respond to each other). These patterns are to some extent independent of the particular individual, they exert a force which shapes behavior and identity.
The notion of social structure as relationships between different entities or groups or as relatively stable patterns of relationship emphasizes the idea that society is grouped into structurally related groups or sets of roles, with different functions, meanings or purposes. One example of social structure is the idea of "social stratification" which refers to the idea that society is separated into different strata, according to social distinctions such as a race, class and gender. Social treatment of persons within various social structures can be understood as related to their placement within various social strata (layers).
The notion of structure as embedded institutions or norms that shape the actions of social agents is important, as structural determination may occur as the actions of persons and organizations are guided partially by the underlying structures in the social system. This approach has been important in the academic literature with the rise of various forms of structuralism, and is important in the contemporary organizational context as organization structure may determine an organizations flexibility, capacity to change and many other factors, and is therefore an important issue to management.
Social structure may be seen to unite important social systems including the economic system, legal system, political system, cultural system and others. Family, territorial community, religious community, ethnical, professional and finally economical (class) groups are all the elements of social structure.
The concept of social structure has a long history in the social sciences, going back for example to the “System of Synthetic Philosophy” and naturalism of Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), the class structure analysis of Karl Marx, social ethics concepts of Max Weber (1864-1920) or the works of Georg Simmel (1858-1918) on social anti-positivism, describing social structure as abstract patterns underlying human interaction, integrity and coherence concept of David Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) and elite theory of Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923). The notion of social structure has been extensively developed in the twentieth century, with key contributions from structuralism of Levi-Strauss (1908-2009) and theory of structural functionalism of Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), and his followers and from perspective of upward mobility, occupational opportunity, and heterogeneity by Peter Michael Blau (1918-2002), J. Lopez and J. Scott, D. V. Porpora, Neil Smelser and others.
The notion of social structure is intimately related to a variety of central topics in social science, including the relation of structure and agency. As noted above, social structure can be identified as the relationship of definite entities or groups to each other, as stable patterns of behavior by participants in a social system in relation to each other, and as institutionalized norms or cognitive frameworks that structure the actions of actors in the social system. It may be made distinction between institutional social structure as comprising those cultural or normative patterns that define the expectations of citizens about each other's behavior and so organizing their long term relations with each other, and relational social structure which is seen as comprising human relationships themselves, understood as patterns of causal interconnection and interdependence among citizens, their actions and occupied positions.
Social structure can also be divided into microstructure and macrostructure. Microstructure is the pattern of relations between most basic elements of social life, that cannot be further divided and have no social structure of their own (for example, pattern of relations between individuals in a group, or a structure of organizations as a pattern of relations between social positions or social roles, where those positions and roles have no structure by themselves). Macrostructure is a pattern of relations between objects that have their own structure (for example, a political social structure a pattern of relations between political parties, as political parties have their own social structure).
Modem sociology also differentiates relation structures (in family or larger family-like clan structures), communication structures (how information is passed in organizations) and sociometric structures (structures of sympathy, antipathy and indifference in organizations which were studied by Jacob L. Moreno, 1889-1974). Sociologists also distinguish between: normative structure as pattern of relations in given structure (organization) between norms and modes of operations of people (of varying social positions), ideal structure as pattern of relations between beliefs and views of people, interests structure as pattern of relations between goals and desires of people, and interaction structure as form of communications of people.
Philosophical concepts of origins and evolution of social structure vary. Some believe that social structure is naturally developed. It may be caused by larger system needs, such as the need for labor, management, professional and military classes, or by conflicts between groups, such as competition among political parties or among elites and masses. Others believe that this structuring is not a result of natural processes, but is socially constructed. It may be created by the power of elites who seek to retain their power or by economic systems that place emphasis upon competition or cooperation (V. Pareto). The most thorough account of the evolution of social structure is perhaps provided by structure and agency accounts that allow for a sophisticated analysis of the co-evolution of social structure and human agency, where socialized agents with a degree of autonomy take action in social systems where their action is on the one hand mediated by existing institutional structure and expectations but may, on the other hand, influence or transform this institutional structure. The notion of social structure may mask systematic biases. Some argue that men and women who have otherwise equal qualifications receive different treatment in the workplace because of their gender. Others note that individuals are sometimes viewed as having different essential qualities based on their race and ethnicity, regardless of their individual qualities. When examined, these social distinctions are often considered stereotypes based on prejudice. However, these social distinctions often go unexamined because they appear to be the result of social structures rather man prejudice.
The most general answer to this question is that social order is a human product, or, more precisely, an ongoing human production. It is produced by man in the course of his ongoing externalization. Social order is not biologically given or derived from any biological data in its empirical manifestations. Social order is also not given in man's natural environment, though particular features of this may be factors in determining certain features of a social order (for example, its economic or technological arrangements). Both in its genesis (social order is the result of past human activity) and its existence in any instant of time (social order exists only and insofar as human activity continues to produce it) it is a human product (P. Berger, Th. Luckmann)
Social groups. A group is a collection of two or more individuals who have developed a common social identity relating to some object of activity. The main features of a sociological group are: interaction among the members takes place, members are aware of their membership in the group, members share a common cause or interest, stable and definite organizational structure presents. 
Main types of social groups are described below. An aggregate is a collection of people who are at the same place at the same time but do not share a definite connection with one another (e.g. a collection of people at a bus station). A social category is a collection of people who are classified together because they all have the same characteristic in only one aspect but differentiate in all the other aspects and may never interact one with another (white males, Native Americans, females over 65 years of age etc.). In-groups and out-groups are concepts that were introduced into sociology by William Graham Sumner (1840-1910.) The term in-group refers to any group to which the individual has membership or belongs. The concept of "consciousness of kind" was introduced by the American sociologist Franklin H. Giddings (1855-1931). According to it humans have a tendency to join or associate with other people who are perceived of as having similarities to them.
One of the most widely utilized concepts of sociological groups is developed by Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929) concept of the "primary group". Cooley defines a primary group as being a "small intimate, face to face association..." of individuals who share some type of common group identity which lead the members of the primary group to naturally identify themselves as “we” or “us” (e.g. sport teams fans). Primary groups tend to be small and are ordinarily composed of fewer than 15 to 20 individuals. Interaction and communication among members in a primary group tends to be of an intimate and personal nature. Members in a primary group commonly develop strong emotional bonds with other members. Primary groups generally persist over extensive periods of time.
The term secondary group has come into use in sociology to describe any group which lacks one or more of the elements that go together to characterize a primary group. In general, a secondary group is composed of individuals who lack strong emotional ties one with another. A reference group is composed of individuals possessing a set of similar characteristics which are used as standards by other individuals in evaluating their own behavior. Reference groups in many cases are not true groups and the individuals who make up the reference group may not share the common identity characteristic of groups. A peer group is made up of individuals of relatively equal status with whom the individual interacts frequently. If an individual select to become a member of a group that group can be referred to as a voluntary group. If an individual becomes a member of a group as a result of factors over which he/she has no control, then the group may be referred to as an involuntary group. A family group (basement of any society structure) is composed of people who are related to each other through marriage, kinship and the like. An educational group could include people studying together in the same educational school, college or class. A work group might include people who do the same type of job. A friendship group includes people who go around together because they like each other though it is not formally instituted by society. One and the same person can be a member of different social groups at the same time. Person membership in these groups affects the way the person thinks about the social world and the way he (or she) behaves in the social world. Because of this many psychological conflicts may arise as demands and patterns of behavior in different social groups can be contradictory or incompatible.
The history of politics and social philosophical development proposed the next most influential traditions of review of the person and the state relations: universalism, socialism, liberalism. Universalism (or totalitarianism) asserted a priority of the whole over a particle. The person is perceived in it as an essence which is completely integrated into the state. For example, for Hegel the purpose of society is not protection of a life and the property of the person by state, but, on the contrary, protection of the state by the person. For socialism the person is the carrier of interests of the certain social groups and is under home nursing of the state, under protection of all power of the state domination. Practically the state determines all sides of civil and personal ability to live for all layers of the population. Liberalism (and democracy) is based on the idea of a lawful state and civilian society, considering it as result of the public contract between independent one from another individuals who own the equal rights and freedom to do anything which dies not harm interests of other citizens.
In political and philosophical theories the idea of the national state arises as addition to idea of a lawful state. The liberal-democratic program, asserting equality of civil human rights, does not resolve a question on equality of the rights of each people, in particular about their right to the state self-determination. The national state idea differs from liberal as it tries to solve not only the problem of legal equality of people of different nationalities but also the problem of equality of the nations in understanding of their right for independent economic, political and cultural development. In other words, the national state which protects territorial unity and political integrity of the nations and guarantees to it development of the national market and preservation of national culture, should be at the same time the legal, democratic state and protect interests of the private person, its political and economic freedom, i.e. such, that guarantees the sovereignty of the person.
From this point of view the process of development of legal, democratic guarantees the rights of person by the state is necessary condition for formation of the national state. At the first period (XVI-XVIII cent.) threat of violence against life and property of individuals was percept as the main of all the threats. The main purpose of the state was to protect safety of a life and private property and for achievement of such the purpose state developed corresponding means: police, courts, "the state monopoly" for authority. The second period (end of XVIII and XIX cent.) was characterized by threat to the individual on the part of the state, despotism, totalitarianism. The purpose of the state was to protect safety of the individual from threat of the state institutions, i.e. to provide freedom and equality by means of distribution of authority between independent branches of state power and securing human rights, including the right of citizens for resistance against illegal appliance of the state power. The third period (XX cent.) is dominated by threat to the individual independence by economic roughness and the free market. The purpose of the state is social justice. Means of its achievement are system of legal maintenance of social care, justice and control directed against abusing of the market monopolization. All the concepts recognize existence of bureaucracy as large and complex formal organizational structure in which efficiency is achieved through a system of professional managers who control and direct the activities of the organization according to distinct rules and guidelines. Max Weber's characteristics of a bureaucracy is based on simultaneous presence of division of labor, hierarchy and "chain of command," written rules, professional education and evaluation of managers and depersonalization of individuals involved.
Practically most modern national states combine attributes of all these three periods. In fact partial association of legal, democratic and social characteristics of a state system occurs in the national state education. The nations receive guaranteed opportunities for the development as the sovereign subject of the world community only in the legal, democratic and social state. On the one hand, when democracy is ratified and has got stability already, people should exist which understand themselves as the certain unity. On the other hand, existence of the nations instead of simple ethnic groups necessary demands democratic establishments, democratic consciousness and citizens who understand themselves both as a part of the whole which they are ready to protect.
Concept of sustainable development of society in global, national or local dimension seems today to be one of the most important, urgent and comprehensive problems. It seems that humanity is approaching to give the system in detail counted, accurate prediction of the possible distant consequences of its current activity. By historical standards the term seems to lag slightly, but we must consider that the curve of the historical development of our time takes up abruptly. Changes that occurred during earlier centuries and millennia and were seen as a process of evolutionary development, in our time are stunning, almost unpredictable. The basis of negative changes is irresponsible, blanket and violent towards nature of human activity. Uncontrolled environmental changes affecting the fundamental parameters of the existence of ecosystems, the biosphere, the entire complex, which makes the system "Earth" and it puts a question mark at the possibility of further existence of both mankind and biosphere in the forms that are available now. So far, mankind has the time to at least suspend the pace of further dangerous changes to deal with their causes, identify and implement alternatives to social development. The ecological, technical and social systems have inherent tendency for self-development and self-regulation. They exist as strong cohesion of elements due to their constant interaction, distribution and reallocation of coming from outside and produced internally set of substances, energy and information. Not all changes lead to the development of the system, but only those that are irreversible, directed to providing stability and expansion. The presence of these qualities makes global development more rapid, unpredictable and harder to comprehend. Anthropogenic pressure on nature has reached beyond the ability of nature to heal, recover and restore itself. All the less time remains to make strategic decisions on how to save the biosphere, biological, cultural and personal nature of man for and through further development.
Sustainable development strategy is a system of coordinated administrative, economic, social, environmental measures aimed at forming a system of social relations based on trust, partnership, solidarity and consensus, ethical values, safe environment, domestic sources of spirituality. At the heart of sustainable development are the inalienable rights to life and full development. The priority of sustainable development is to optimize human life in a safe environment and harmonious relations both within society and between different communities. The basis of the strategy was formed by the decision of the United Nations Organization Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 1992) and the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002).
Theory and practice of sustainable development both globally and at national, regional and local level is a reflection of the objective need for new orientation of economic and social development centralised on an urgent requirement of conservation of proper natural conditions of human development for present and future generations. Realization of this objective largely depends on subjective factors. It is not only understanding of this need, but also the attitude towards it, people's readiness to support the appropriate strategy actively, personally participate in mastering and following the ways its implementation. Through the efforts of the UN, this extremely important and difficult problem is raised at the highest levels of international cooperation.
Already it is evident that the ecological culture, education and science are the main components of environmentally friendly behaviour. Of particular relevance scientific support of sustainable development is in Ukraine, where noospheric development idea was born by V.Vernadskiy, significantly ahead of its time. The modern concept of a harmonized, balanced development of Ukraine cannot be formed on the basis of certain specific research, but it is necessary to the system, a comprehensive scientific approach to the problem. It should be separately identified the role of knowledge, educational and scientific dimension of sustainable development. Formation of ideological orientations, applied knowledge and practical skills of municipal officials, ordinary citizens, especially young people needs to rethink the content and nature study, explore possibilities of mass information and belief the people of modern educational technologies.
In the early and middle XX century, marked by the extensive development of mass destruction weapons and military political blocks confrontation, few paid attention to what is happening with the environment, and so large number of complex and urgent problems was accumulated. Those associated with improper conditions of drinking water and atmospheric air, erosion of soils and absence of food are now of particular importance. At the end of the twentieth century, humanity found itself in an extremely difficult situation: it became clear that the paradigm of social development, which was dominant during the last century, which was based on consumer, irresponsible attitude toward nature and resources, as something plentiful and inexhaustible is no longer applicable. Further development in this way without making radical changes is leading to a deadlock. It became clear that current way of human life and social production is in contradiction with the fundamental principles of existence of the biosphere which generates more and more global problems that threat the survival and continued existence of humanity as both civilization and one of biological species.
So the problem of sustainable development is one of the most important problems in the modern world. All the world leaders deal with it, hundreds of governmental and intergovernmental programs are devoted to it, it is many years on the agenda of international organizations, United Nations Organization first of all. The problem of sustainable development has become an important component of domestic and foreign policies of many countries on all continents. Even greater attention is given to sustainable development problem in the scientific community. Extensive researches were conducted (e.g. by Roman Club international community); thousand scientific reports, fundamental monographs and textbooks, problem articles and brochures were written and translated into different languages. Modern methods of processing information using computer technology and advanced software make it possible to significantly expand the monitoring of natural and social processes that make it more complete, operational and comprehensive. Based on their results new models of the current and further development of the biosphere, human, humanity are developed.
The important feature of sustainable development problems is that their urgency is not decreasing with time, but vice versa is growing. And it is the reason of the great attention given to it in the whole world governments, national governments, scientists and ordinary people. This indicates that the measures taken by the international community for its solution are not efficient enough, and the resources allocated for this purpose are insufficient. It seems that the efforts of the international commonwealth towards the realization of sustainable development strategy are inadequate to the threats that are produced by further progress of human civilization. There is urgent need for changes of the paradigm of development that has emerged in the past and does not meet modern realities, which primarily concerns the depth and rate of change of conditions of human life. Innovative world needs innovative approaches to defining the basic concepts of its modern development.
Basic elements of sustainable development concept are the following. Nature of environmental sustainability is based on the theory of biotic regulation of the environment. Sustainable economic development based on radically modified market system must be ensured. Sustainable social development is to be based on the principle of justice. “Greening” of public consciousness and decision making must be conducted through the systematic use of education and mass media. Close international collaboration and cooperation to achieve sustainable development goals is to be ensured. Thus, in all the main provisions of sustainable development refers to the transition from spontaneity to the manageability, which implies a transformation of socio sphere in noosphere. In this connection it must be stressed that the biosphere environment operates on the basis of its own laws, and their study by humanity must be continued.
World strategy of development of education in sustainable development and environment can be formulated as follows. Education in this area is throughout life and is an integral part of general education rights. Education in this field should not be limited to formal education system only but within the formal education at all levels must gradually achieve inter disciplinarily character. Success of education in this area requires the use of new concepts and new methods of education. To do this, the next steps are proposed: to educate members of the public that understands the relationship of man and nature, are recognizing the need to preserve global equilibrium; to provide accurate information about the state of the environment; to ensure the dissemination of knowledge and skills for decision-making. “Ecological Enlightenment”, raising awareness should be recognized as a process by which man and society can fully develop their potential. Training is critical for promoting sustainable development and empowerment of countries to address environmental and development. Both formal and informal education are indispensable factors for changes in consciousness and culture of the people for decision making towards sustainable development, to ensure awareness of environmental issues and ethics, to overcome the informational and functional ecological illiteracy.
One of the key factors for sustainable development of humanity is preservation of natural conditions and resources and restoration of balance between different types of ecological systems and between their components. To substantially reduce the anthropogenic impact on the environment and stop degradation processes it is necessary to radically change the existing practice of management by refraining from "zero" value of natural resources which will create financial preconditions for both funding the programs of ecologically safe technologies development and appliance and for balanced social and economic development. Criteria for sustainable development should be incremental, and its growth potential while preserving and improving the transition to a qualitative environment.
Environmental problems are associated primarily with industry and agriculture management activities, mainly oriented to maximize the use of useful properties of water bodies without taking into account the long-term consequences. The volume of wastes that is dumped each year into the environment is above self-recovering ability of ecosystems which are not able to neutralize the negative effects and restore impaired ecological balance. Even more urgent is the problem of land degradation and loss of soil fertility due to the extensive growth of food production. Demographic problems of population decline in northern countries and accelerated propagation in southern regions directly or indirectly affect all aspects of society as they led to significant population stratification in terms of real income and standard of living which in turn caused uncontrolled migration processes.
The strategic objective of sustainable development of humanity is to achieve a balanced coexistence of natural environment, society and person based on democratic, tolerant, pluralistic and ecologically oriented social and economic policy, harmonious social relations and equitable international co-operation. The ways to reach this strategic objective are many. In the field of environmentally sustainable economic development the main tasks are: transition of economy to innovation model of development; restructuring the economy by accelerating the development of high-tech industries; creating a competitive, socially oriented market economy; establish stable economic mechanisms and nature of the environmental component in the system of national accounts; increase efficiency of nature protection and restoration of natural systems and resources, including bio-diversity; encouraging the implementation of environmentally friendly, energy efficient and resource-saving technologies; development of closed cycle and wastes treatment technologies in order to improve recycling and disposal of industrial and domestic wastes; support environmentally efficient energy production, including the use of renewable energy and secondary energy resources; development of environmentally friendly modes of transport and transport communications, the creation of alternative fuels including non-carbon. In the area of social justice: reduction of stratification in the population, poverty and unemployment rate; stabilization of the demographic structure of society; strengthening of physical health of the nations, prevention of disease widespread and occurrence of injuries in the workplace; optimization of social structure, establishing guarantees of equal opportunities to achieve financial, environmental and social well-being; development of the education system, education and information dissemination on sustainable development. In the field of public relations the main tasks are: establishment of effective mechanisms to protect the constitutional rights and freedoms; civil society, providing it political stability and mutual understanding; development of spirituality, culture, moral principles and intellectual potential of the people. In the field of rational use of natural resources: promoting environmentally sustainable state of the environment of the country and the development of regions; economically and environmentally sound use of non-renewable and efficient reproduction of renewable natural resources; mitigate the damage inflicted by which the environment during mining, reclamation of land disturbed during the development of mineral deposits; establishment of ecological networks, conservation and restoration of natural biodiversity; development of environmentally friendly agricultural practices, conservation and restoration of natural soil fertility of agricultural land; improvement of market mechanisms in the regulation of natural resources; measures to prevent and suppress all kinds of illegal exploitation of natural resources, including poaching.
In the field of scientific support the main tasks are: improvement of scientific and ecological expert centers, which are aimed at studying the problems of environmental protection, natural resources, environmental safety; comprehensive research to improve the system of payments for environmental pollution; support priority scientific and technical research on the development of effective means of reducing water and air pollution; development of principles of permissible limits of technogenic loads using the environmental risk assessment models and natural resources management systems on the local, regional and global level; development of new environmentally safe technologies of disposal, utilization and possible economic use of wastes and technogenic (secondary) mineral deposits; increase the validity and objectivity of choice for enterprises to build the basic industries with regard to the level of the complex balance of environmental, technological and social factors; zoning areas for the presence of potentially hazardous activities and the degree of technogenic and ecological risks; development of methods of calculating rent and features of its charges by type of natural resources. 
In the field of environmental education and education the main tasks are: create public support for research and educational centers for sustainable development; development for state support of education, retraining and advanced training of personnel for various sectors on sustainable development; expansion of special education and environmental ecological and legal orientation, development of new curricula and teaching methods to improve environmental disciplines; inclusion of educational programs on sustainable development of the programs of basic and higher education, creation of training manuals on environmental ethics and environmental economics, publication of scientific and popular literature; establishment of information programs and publications to disseminate information on sustainable development. 
Quality of life and status of environmental quality are defined as a line of criteria of evaluating natural and social environment conditions for basic satisfaction of human needs. Quality of life in the social aspect can be based on the index of social development. It should reflect two levels: a necessary and sufficient (social), which can be seen in the current period and in the future. By the indicators that form the necessary level of social development index the security of the population and availability of human resources will be described and by the indicators that form an adequate level of social development index the living standards will be described. To estimate the rate of environmental quality are used criteria of conditions of the atmosphere, surface and ground waters and soils, indicators of biota, including: loss of species of rare plants and animals; the emergence of alien species (biological pollution); percentage area of environmental protection facilities; quantification of biotic and landscape diversity of new territories; stocks of biotic resources.
As a conclusion, we could say that modern understanding of the concept of sustainable development takes into account not only economic or ecological-economic but also social (social) dimension of its political, ideological, moral, cultural components. It is clear that the fate of civilization depends not only on the relation of man to nature, although it is extremely important. Equally important for the continuity of generations is preservation of necessary conditions for satisfaction of all the life needs, both material and spiritual, required to preserve human civilization values and traditions of humanism. Sustainable development should ensure not only the biological survival of humanity, but the accumulation, storage and transmission of capacities required for further progress of it based on unity with biosphere and within the limits of humanity itself.
Control Tasks and Questions
1. Name and describe the main concepts (naturalistic, social and psychological) of society in philosophical tradition. 
2. Describe the system of natural conditions of social life.
3. Describe the demographical factors of social development and main historical types of population reproduction.
4. Name and describe the main spheres of social life.
5. Characterize the main philosophical concepts of material production sphere role in society, factors and conditions of social production.
6. Characterize the main ideas of modern philosophers about economical processes and problems of individual alienation.
7. Characterize the social structure and its main elements.
8. Describe the differences in social structure of traditional, industrial and informational society.
9. Name and describe the main large social groups.
10. Name and describe the main small social groups.
11. Name and describe the main elements of political sphere of society.
12. Characterize the main theories of state origin, nature and role in society.
13. Name and describe the main types of political regime.
14. Describe civil society theory origins and basis.
15. Describe the essence of public organizations, movements and their types.
16. Describe the political parties, their functions and types.
17. Put down the general definition of human being as a universal object of philosophical research. Name and describe the main attributive characteristics of a human.
18. Characterize the main historical approaches to problem of human origins (religious, evolutional (scientific), extraterrestrial etc.). Describe the role of labor and language in human infancy.
19. Describe the main approaches to the philosophical problem of interrelation between biological, social and spiritual in a human.
20. Characterize human and being as "micro" and "macro world".
21. Describe the main philosophical aspects of human being and not-being, the problem of reason for human being and concept of human being as a being of probability.
21. Name and describe the main forms of human activity.
22. Name and describe the main global problems of our days.
23. Characterize the main proposed variants of global problems solution.
24. Characterize the possibilities and problems of global modeling of future and the role of philosophy and science in this process.

RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
1. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martins Press, 1979. – 768 p.
2. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
3. Kymlicka W. Contemporary Political Philosophers/ W. Kymlicka. –Oxford, 2002. – 512 p.
4. Dewey J. Theory of the Moral Life / J. Dewey. – New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1960. – 145 p.
5. Fromm E. To Have or to Be?/ E. Fromm. – London, New York : Continuum, 1968. – 182 p.
6. Fromm E. Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics / E. Fromm. – New York, Toronto : Henry Holt and Company, 1990. – 272 p.
7. Kravchenko B. Social Change and National Consciousness in Twentieth Century Ukraine / B. Kravchenko. – London: Macmillan, 1985. – 423 p.
8. Locke J. Two Treatises of Government / J. Locke. New York :  G. Routledge, 1963. – 591 p.
9. Marcuse H. One-Dimensional Man/ H. Marcuse. – Boston : Beacon Press, 1966. – 182 p.
10. Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann. The Social Constitution of Reality: A Treatise it’s the Sociology of Knowledge/ P. Berger, Th. Luckmann. — Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1966. — p. 51.
11. Redfield R. The Little Community, and Peasant Society and Culture / R. Redfield. – Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1985. – 288 p.
12. Williams B. Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy / B. Williams. – Routledge, 2011. – 296 p.
13. N.V. Popov, A.A. Zakordonets. Philosophy. Scholarly applicable methods for international students / A.A. Zakordonets, N.V. Popov. Kyiv: Bogomolets National Medical University, 2004. — 72 p.
14. Vermenko A. Yu. Philosophy: [textbook] / A. Yu. Vermenko. – Nizhin : PE Lisenko N.M., 2016. – 150 p.

Part 12. Philosophy of medicine
Philosophy of medicine and medicine as science. Philosophy of medicine is one of the most important practical subfields of philosophy, especially for the students of medical universities. The general philosophical approaches are to be significantly transformed here in order to properly reflect and describe the specific features of medicine theoretical and methodological basis, ethics, practical activity and interaction of it with the other sphere s of society structure. The main aim of philosophy of medicine is to uncover philosophical aspects of medicine as both theoretical science and practical activity and so to help in formation of systematic world outlook of students, teachers and practical specialists of medical subsystem of society. The main problems which should be discussed here are the problems of human health and disease, norm and pathology, juridical, cultural and ethical rules of medical personnel activity, role of patients and doctors in preventing and curing diseases and providing optimal conditions of health keeping and human physical abilities developing in their generality, systematical links to other components of human essence and correlation with both eternal general human values and individual conditions and demands of specific professions, social groups, historical periods and types of natural environment.
The first problem, which is researched by the philosophy of medicine, is a problem of specific application of scientific knowledge norms and results of development to biological organisms as most changeable elements of nature and human organism as specific unity of biological and social characteristics.
The philosophy of medicine is often understood as a part of philosophy of science. But there are many reasons to deny such an approach. First of all, the standards of strictly scientific approach are formed in medicine only from the XIX century, so they could not be applied to all the periods of its historical development. But the attempts of general theoretical understanding of medical problems were undertaken from the earliest periods of Ancient philosophy formation and the ideas formed at that time just cannot be ignored in the process of philosophical evaluation of medicine problems. The works of Hippocrates can be good example of this.
The second problem is complicated and complex character of medical practical activity as socio cultural phenomenon which was very much diversified in different regions and historical periods and remains so even in modern society. The core of it is surely composed by activity of professionals with formal medical education and diplomas verifying it, but is also added by everyday activity of common citizens providing elementary medical services for themselves and their families, including the very basic forms of hygienic and health care activity of members of territorial communities, agricultural and craftsmen collectives in the undeveloped regions of world and so on. Besides this, in modern times we could observe the great increase in aggressive advertising and widespread of non-traditional medicine cures, procedures and approaches, which can lead to the need of philosophical evaluation new medical (or even anti medical) mythology and all the types of misjudgment, superstition or speculation. This is caused by many reasons main of which personal negative experience of interaction with official medicine, general overflow of information due to results of most modern information exchange technologies appliance which caused the overload of human perception and judgment ability provided by common sense, quickly expired professional and general knowledge database due to constant acceleration of technological progress and so development of mistrust to scientific world view. Here we shall remind that philosophical approach can provide great benefit in terms of longer periods of forecasting between real exposition of problems to the strictly scientific research as well as allow more systematical approach to description and explanation of the problem with incorporation of some non scientific elements (cultural, ethical, ethnical and so on). The existence and historical development of non-traditional medicine widespread between the population is a complicated and complex social phenomenon which shall be under viewed with the equally complex system of approaches, including not only scientific but as well historical, economical, social, cultural and surely philosophical. 
It is worthy to underline the etymological correlation between words “philosophy” and “medicine”. If “philosophy” in Ancient Greek language meant “love for wisdom”, “medicine” in Sanskrit meant “great wisdom”. To this great wisdom was included as one of elements the knowledge about Universe, its structure and laws as well as knowledge about human nature, essence and role in the world, human ability to prevent and heal diseases by proper training and treatment of organism and keeping right type of connections with all the elements of world structure (though often expressed in specific anthropomorphic or even animistic style). In Latin language “medicos” meant healing, helpful, proper treating.
The philosophical and medical tractates of Ancient East described the restoration of proper type of connection between person and nature as main way of any medical treatment. As for example, Wu wei principle in Taoist teaching continues principle of following the natural order of things, explains that beings (or phenomena) that are wholly in harmony with the Tao behave in a completely natural, uncontroversial way.
The philosophy and medicine of Ancient West were also closely related one to another initially. The Socrates proposed all the humans to concentrate on acquiring knowledge about themselves, to reveal both their relations to general ideas and principles of world and humanity organization as well as their unique features, mechanisms of self governing, self development and self correction. But during later stages of Western theoretical knowledge historical development such holistic approach was gradually replaced by more and more specialized understanding of all the world and human organism in particular which eventually led to fragmentary and narrow scope of all the sciences including medicine. The wisdom of medical activity is based on proper understanding of laws, structure and possible changes of world in general and human life. 
The character of doctors’ activity is mostly determined by the world outlook content and general orientation. During the period of its origin the basic content of ideas about the rules of medical activity depended on the understanding of the real world. The views of ancient materialists about the basic elements of the world led to the appearance of one type of ideas about the character of diseases, in which the main reasons of diseases were absence of improper concentration of some natural elements in the human body On the other hand, the animistic interpretation of the world gave birth to the other type of ideas, in which the appearance of the disease was connected with the penetration of evil spirits in human bodies. Alongside with the use of medicine (plants, minerals, etc.) the main focus was made on the exorcism of evil spirits from the human being with the help of different magical rituals, spells and so on. That was the first pre-scientific period, in which mostly priests and wise men were doctors. That was the period of domination of syncretism in knowledge, when philosophical, medical and other forms of pre-scientific knowledge were not diversified.
This period in medicine lasted till the times of Hippocrates (4-5 cent. BC) who both laid down many basic principles of medicine and was the first to separate medicine from philosophy. Only starting from this period one can observe the interaction between medicine and philosophy as separate branches of scientific knowledge. This distinction is reflected in one of the names of Hippocrates – “The doctor and philosopher who was god like”. This can be used for the substantiation of the philosophical training of doctor. In the opinion of Hippocrates, there is two-sided interaction between philosophy and medicine. Philosophy must be introduced in medicine and vice versa as all the properties of philosophy are kept in medicine. Medicine cannot exist without general ideas of philosophy and philosophy cannot exist without facts which are supplied by medicine. This is of primary importance as medicine is one of most dynamic areas of human knowledge.
The views of representatives of Milesian philosophical school (4-5 cent. BC) had a significant influenced on the formation of Hippocrates ideas in particular his teaching role of liquid substances (humours) in human body which determine type of temperament. As Thales considered water to be the basic element of the world, Hippocrates considered liquid to be the basic element of living being. The main liquids of human body were differentiated into the next set of 4 forms: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. The quantity and quality proportion of those liquids determines type of health and diseases of a human. Normal composition of liquids and proper proportional correlation between them is the basics of health. The incorrect mixture of liquids and misbalance between them is the reason of diseases. The Hippocrates’s teaching does not lie only in the development of the humoralistic theory in medicine, though it also played an important role in the development of scientific foundations of medicine. If Milesian philosophical school in the history of philosophy preceded the atomistic theory of Leucippus and Democritus then humoralistic theory in medicine preceded solidarity teaching of Asclepius. According to Asclepius the human body consists of infinite quantity of atoms and canals (poros), which are sensitive and situated between them. The leading reason of diseases is the change of such canal parameters which cause their narrowing or expanding. According to such views on the nature of disease during its treatment doctors tried to provide necessary narrowing or expanding of canals. Atomism was only one of the theoretical pre-conditions of solidarism formation in medicine. Another equally important reason was the increase in the increase of anatomic knowledge. It is worth considering the specifics of cognitive activity of a person which moves from outer or surface knowledge to the inner, hidden knowledge. Changes in the organism are connected with liquid discharge are more observable than the sickly changes in the body tissues. During the next 15 centuries theoretical systems originating from the teaching of C. Galen (AD 131-200) dominated in medicine. His teaching was based on the principles of philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. In particular, he applied the principles of Aristotle logic in classifying diseases, i.e. 1) diseases of homogeneous organs and tissues; 2) diseases of heterogeneous organs and tissues; 3) diseases of basic liquids. Each group of diseases was subdivided into three subgroups in accordance with the principles of logics: 1) in accordance with the principle of localization it was proposed to differentiate the diseases by the place of injured organs and tissues; 2) in accordance with the symptoms principle it was proposed to differentiate the diseases by the most typical symptoms; 3) in accordance with the etiological principle it was proposed to differentiate the diseases by the reasons and conditions of diseases appearance.
Idealistic elements of Aristotle’s and Plato’s teachings and Christian theology influences substantially the formation of medical ideas of C. Galen. He subordinated humoralistic and solidarity essences to spiritual and divine. According to C. Galen life is the highest manifestation of divine power. The basis for morphology and functioning of organs is appropriateness which is understood a teleological way. He substantiated teaching on a different number of bones in the body of men and women with the reference to the Biblical teaching about the creation of Eva from Adam’s rib. C. Galen was considered to be a model for a medieval doctor. 
Empiricism and mathematical generalizations connected with F. Bacon and R. Descartes played an important role in the development of medical scientific cognition. They became a characteristic feature of New Time period and had a substantial influence on the development of medical theory and practice. F. Bacon (1561-1626) was a real founder of experimental science. According to him one should not trust accidental perception but it is necessary to carry out systematic observations and to add them with consideration of the experience. The best proof is experience if it is based on the experiment. Applying created by him inductive method to specifics of medical knowledge, F. Bacon emphasized a special role of the history of disease and knowledge of conditions of its appearance. He recommended applying etiological therapy and healing diet. F. Bacon thought restoration of health and reduce of suffering to be equally important, recommended to make death maximally easy and calm. He also was the first to divide medicine in three main divisions: health support (valeology), cure of diseases (practical medicine), extension of life (gerontology).
R. Descartes (1596-1650) based his methodology on principles of rational deduction. He wrote that scientific discoveries are results of thinking and not of experiments. The scientific knowledge for him is not made as inclusion of individual discoveries into general world picture but as creation of general terminological ethics aimed not to fill different lacunas but to reveal general truth. R. Descartes was one of the founders of the teaching about reflexes, which is based upon the ideas of determinism, the interaction of organism and environment, the idea about the organism as a machine. This led to the investigation of this machine and accumulation of knowledge about the human morphology as well as about functional designation of its parts which led to the birth of physiology.
It is clear that principles of mechanics could not fully explain different aspects of functioning of the whole organism. There was some more place for the opposite views. There was opposition between iatrophysical and iatrochemical schools in medicine of that time. Iatrophysists considered mechanic movement to be the basis of human life and human organism functioning. One prominent iatrophysicist was Giovanni Borelli (1608-1679), who modeled the human body, various animals, and their motions using mechanical principles. Another notable iatrophysicist was the French philosopher and mathematician Rene Descartes (1596-1650), who, as a consequence of his philosophy asserting that the human body and soul are two dual entities, treated the human body as a machine that could be quantified, disassembled, and studied. He attempted to model various phenomena such as the brain, movement, sleep, circulation, and senses with analogies to inanimate objects such as reservoirs, pipes, lenses and steam engines that often sought to maintain an equilibrium for certain states. Some of his claims often were independent of physical observation of the organ or body in question and emphasized what he deemed as "simple" or "rational" rather than reality. For example, he asserts that blood circulates throughout the body by expanding as vapor by the heart's heat rather than from contraction.
The bitter opponents of iatrophysists, iatrochemical school represented by Helmond, Sylvius and Paracelsus supported the idea about chemical character of physiological processes in the organism. Paracelsus (1493-1541) described a human body as a complex chemical system and founded the tradition of experimental researches in medicine. He emphasized the value of observation in combination with the previously received theoretical wisdom. Paracelsus is also credited as the "father of toxicology". A German-born physician, Franciscus Sylvius (1614–1672), is best known in 18th-century European medicine for his contributions to the understanding of the biochemistry of the body and the tubercles, and as one of the co-founders of an iatrochemical school. In continuation of humoral medicine, Sylvius did deem that diseases resulted from excesses of the humors in the body, but he saw it as a more chemically driven excess, specifically one of too much acid or alkali solution in the body. Sylvius had his own laboratory in which he ran experiments on acids and alkali solutions to see the result when different mixtures were made. Much of his theories of the human body were based on the digestive processes. His understanding was that digestion helped food undergo a fermentation reaction. He rationalized that the body functioned mainly as a result of chemical reactions, of which acids and alkali were the essential reactants and were products which needed to be kept in balance to be in a healthy state. Although Sylvius did not take on the more observation-based style of medicine that was being so championed in the 17th and 18th centuries, his emphasis on the chemical reactions and knowledge helped support this more observation-driven scientific approach to medicine. It is known that many of Sylvius' inquiries did help in the future discoveries of certain enzymes driving food digestion and bodily reactions. Iatrochemistry was a new practice in the 17th century, a time when traditional medicines were based on a legacy from the 4th and 5th centuries B.C. Much of this tradition was derived from Galen and Avicenna. The iatrochemists rejected the traditional medical theory, mostly from Galenic traditionalists. Galen traditionalists sought to establish the balance of temperament within the bodies. There are two pairs of qualities, hot and cold, and wet and dry. Sickness came from the imbalance of one quality. That is, a cold was an excess of heat (hot quality), so it can be cured by reducing hot quality or by increasing cold quality. The iatrochemists, influenced by Paracelsus's belief, believed that the sickness was from the outside source, not because of the imbalance of the body. Another controversy between Galenic traditionalists and iatrochemists was the way to use herbs. The Galenic traditionalists thought that the strength of remedies relied on the amount of plant materials that was used. The iatrochemists, however, supported the chemical preparation of materials of remedies to increase the effectiveness of the materials or to find the stronger medicine. Additionally, Galenic traditionalists argued that chemically prepared medicines were poisonous, and the iatrochemists were inadequately trained. The former was true, and, in some cases, both were correct. Since Paracelsus claimed that poisons could have beneficial medical effects, the number of toxic ingredients used in chemical medicines had increased. Galenic traditionalists later adapted medical method and some remedies to use in their own fields.
Iatrochemical principles form a major part of the Indian alchemical tradition (Sanskrit rasaśāstra). Alchemical texts start to be composed in Sanskrit in South Asia from the end of the first millennium CE, and a flourishing literature developed and continued even into the twentieth century. These works contain extensive chapters on the use of alchemical recipes for healing. The use of plants, minerals and metals in medical therapeutics also existed in India. In Ayurvedic medicine, substances used in these therapeutics were known as 'Rasa dravyas.' Ayurvedic medicine instills the belief that every material had the potential to be used as a substance. This drove the creation of new products and new uses for common substances in nature. The people of Ayurvedic medicine categorize the materials in nature into three categories: 'Janagama,' substances from animals such as milk, urine, blood, and meat, 'Audbhida' or substances from plants such as stems, roots or leaves, and 'Paarthiwa' or metal/mineral substances such as gold, silver, copper or sulfur. There was especially an emphasis on the element, Mercury, in this culture. The name of these specific practices in Ayurvedic medicine, were termed 'Rasashaastra', which means the "Science of Mercury." which has eventually become known as Iatrochemistry in current terminology. Much of the focus of 'Rasashaastra' was on the processing of these metals to become ingestible by the human body. The therapeutic effect of the materials such as metals and minerals that were known to be indigestible by the human body were combined with plants or animal materials to increase their delivery ability to human body.
Vitalist concepts explained processes of life by over natural forces such as vital source and energy. The well-known representative of vitalism was George von Stoll (1659-1739) who developed theory of phlogiston. He understood the life activity of organisms from the point of view of absolute necessity. The disease was interpreted as summa of intentional movements of soul aimed to remove from the body some harmful agents. The founder of homeopathy Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1834) named the metaphysics styles of philosophy to be important factor of medicine development. One of the main of them was mono casual concept which explained the development of disease by influence of only one factor.
The period of inclusion of medicine in natural philosophy was finished and adoption of the classical theoretical and scientific approach in medicine happened during XVII−XIX century. At the beginning of XX century medicine already had many important scientific achievements such as epistemological organization of knowledge in pathological anatomy, physiology, pathological physiology, bacteriology and so on. The first in history of medicine successful attempt of theoretical synthesis of medical knowledge in exactly scientific way was the cellular pathology theory of R.Virhov. It was practically the single medical theoretical system which performed the function of integrative theory for long period of time.
The interaction between philosophy and medicine acquired specific character. Philosophy performed compensatory function as scientific theory of medicine or some theoretical addition to medical knowledge in the frame work of natural philosophy approach. This compensated at some degree the hetero chronic character of medical culture formation caused by the slower development of its theoretical and gnoseological system in comparison to its practical and object orientated elements including ethics. One of the main reasons of such hetero chronic development of medical culture and its slower development if compared to biological science is specifics of its object of research and this cannot be completely compensated.
The object of research of medicine and its place in the system of modern knowledge can be characterized in the following way.
Generally the object is something to which gnoseological or practical activity will be applied. The object is composed of such the properties of object which are researched by some branch of science in accordance to its specific point of view, with the help of its own terminology and categories system, its own specific system of scientific laws, all of them different from those of other branches of science.
The main object of research of medicine was and is during all the historical periods the human in all the fullness of its definitions beginning with physical body and finishing with social, psychical and spiritual qualities of personality. Medicine researches all the aspects of human life activity which are related to the problem of human health and disease, norm and pathology in all their diversity and specific relations of human and its natural, social and cultural environment. The specific laws of medicine are the objective laws of normal and pathological life activity of human organism and human personality.
It is necessary to consider the problem of correlation between the subject and the object on the basis of dialectic methodology in the process of medicine development and its paradigmatic changes. Elemental holistic concepts of ancient world were the following. Hippocrates proposed to heal not the disease but the patient, taking into account the main features of a person, her mode of life and natural environment. Socrates is told to express such a thought, “Good doctors say that it is impossible to heal one eye, but the whole head, if eyes are to be recovered. Likewise it is impossible to heal a head without healing the whole body. The biggest mistake is the division into doctors of the body and doctors of the soul, because they are indispensable in fact”.
Biomedical model is based on the socio-medical understanding and modern holistic approaches to a human in the context of integrity of human existence. Thus, considering the complexity and multi-level structure of the object of research medicine is connected both with natural and humanitarian sciences and has the status of a synthetic science, an intermediary one. Theoretical foundation of medicine is biology, but it does not cover all its content. So, considering the objective position and functional designation of separate medical sciences they are divide into 3 groups: medical and biological sciences (fundamental and theoretical), clinical (applied and practical) and social and hygienic (development of optimal health preserving model of life activity in natural and social environment).
The philosophy of medicine can be described as a branch of philosophy that studies problems of ontology (or metaphysics), gnoseology (epistemology), methodology, social philosophy and ethics connected to medicine theory and practice. Philosophy of medicine is closely connected to medical ethics, bioethics and philosophy of healthcare (which is concentrated on research of ethical and political issues arising from healthcare research and practice). The newest direction school, in the philosophy of medicine is analytic philosophy of medicine. Intense debates have occurred in the past over whether there is a distinct field rightly termed “philosophy of medicine” but now there are dedicated journals and professional organizations, well-established canon of scholarly literature, and distinctive questions and problems, so it is defensible to claim that philosophy of medicine is already firmly established. Ethics and axiology were always among the main problems of philosophy of medicine, but bioethics is generally considered to be a distinct field. However, philosophy of medicine serves as a foundation for many debates within bioethics as it analyzes fundamental components of the practice of medicine that frequently arise in bioethics such as concepts of disease.
The ways in which health-care professionals (ranging from clinicians to biomedical scientists) interpret, evaluate and use knowledge are central concerns of medical gnoseology and epistemology. Evidence-based medicine studies the ways in which medical specialists can gain knowledge regarding key clinical questions such as the effects of medical interventions, the accuracy of diagnostic tests, and the predictive value of prognostic markers. It is usually interpreted as methodology of appliance of medical knowledge to problems of clinical care but sometimes it is extended to philosophy of evidence which research hierarchy of evidence and rank different kinds of research methodology by the relative evidential weight they provide. Currently most philosophers deny the legitimacy of such the extension. The philosophy of medicine also has made important contributions to general philosophy of science and particularly to understandings of explanation, causation, and experimentation as well as debates over applications of scientific knowledge. Finally, the philosophy of medicine has contributed to discussions on methods and goals within both research and practice in the medical and health sciences. Most researches in philosophy of medicine are currently based the Western tradition, although there are growing literatures on philosophy of non-Western and alternative medical practices. It emphasizes philosophical literature while utilizing relevant scholarly publications from other disciplinary perspectives.
The ontology of general medical science includes a set of logical definitions of most general terms that are used across medical disciplines, including: 'disease', 'disorder', 'disease course', 'diagnosis', and 'patient'. It provides a formal theory of disease that is elaborated further by which extended by specific disease ontology, including the infectious disease ontology and the mental disease ontology. The main field of researches is restricted to humans, but many terms and methods can be applied to other organisms as well. The ontology of medicine recently developed a special interest the idea of causality because the purpose of medical research is to reveal causes of disease and causes of healing.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_medicine - cite_note-Cartwright_2009-35 The scientific processes used to generate causal knowledge give clues to the metaphysics of causation. For example, there is quite popular idea that randomised controlled trials are more helpful in revealing causal relationships than observational studies. Here causation is understood as counterfactually dependent, so the main difference of randomised controlled trials differ from observational studies is that they have a comparison group in which the intervention of interest is not given. Main causal paradigms in biomedicine are the Humean, linear, mono-factorial paradigm championed mainly in clinical medicine; and the non-linear, reciprocal, multi-factorial paradigm invoked in epidemiology.
Main representatives of modern philosophy of medicine are Rachel Ankeny, Christopher Boorse, Nancy Cartwright, H. Tristram Engelhardt, Fred Gifford, Havi Carel, Donald A. Gillies, Jeremy Howick, Hilde Lindemann, Ingvar Johansson, Keekok Lee, Michael Loughlin, Frederica Russo, Kazem Sadegh-Zadeh, Kenneth F. Schaffner, Miriam Solomon, David Papineau, Edmund Pellegrino, John Worrall, Jacob Stegenga and others, so medical students are welcome to make acquaintance with their books in out-of-auditory time.
Control Tasks and Questions
1. Describe the object of research of philosophy of medicine and its place in the system of modern knowledge.
2. Describe philosophical aspects of medicine as both theoretical science and practical activity.
3. Describe historical development of philosophy of medicine.
4. Describe axiological and ethical problems of modern medicine.
Literature
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Culver, C.M., and Gert, B. 1982. Philosophy in medicine: conceptual and ethical issues in medicine and psychiatry. New York: Oxford University Press.
DesJardins, Joseph R., Environmental Ethics: An Introduction to Environmental Philosophy, (Belmont CA: Wadsworth, 3rd ed., 2001).
Engelhardt, Jr., H.T., ed., 2000. Philosophy of medicine: framing the field. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Engelhardt, Jr., H.T., and Erde, E.L. 1980. Philosophy of medicine. In A guide to culture of science, technology, and medicine, P.T. Durbin, ed. New York: Free Press, pp. 364-461.
Engelhardt, Jr., H.T., and Wildes, K.W. Philosophy of medicine. 2004. In Encyclopedia of bioethics, 3rd edition, S.G. Post, ed. New York: Macmillan, pp. 1738-1742.
Evans, M., Louhiala, P. and Puustinen, P., eds. 2004. Philosophy for medicine: applications in a clinical context. Oxon, UK: Radcliffe Medical Press.
Fulford K.W.M.: Moral Theory and Medical Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, xxi. - 311 pp.
Gert, B., Culver, C.M., and Clouser, K.D. 1997. Bioethics: a return to fundamentals. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Gillon, R. 1986. Philosophical medical ethics. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Howick, J.H. 2011. The philosophy of evidence-based medicine. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley- Blackwell.
Johansson, I., and Lynøe, N. 2008. Medicine and philosophy: a twenty-first century introduction. Frankfurt: Ontos Verlag.
King, L.S. 1978. The philosophy of medicine. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Maier, B., and Shibles, W.A. 2010. The philosophy and practice of medicine and bioethics: a naturalistic-humanistic approach. New York: Springer.
Marcum, J.A. 2008. An introductory philosophy of medicine: humanizing modern medicine. New York: Springer.
Overby, P. 2005. The moral education of doctors. New Atlantis 10:17-26.
Pellegrino, E.D., and Thomasma, D.C. 1981. A philosophical basis of medical practice: toward a philosophy and ethic of the healing professions. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pellegrino, E.D., and Thomasma, D.C. 1993. The virtues in medical practice. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pole, S. 2006. Ayurvedic medicine: the principles of traditional practice. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier.
Schaffner, K.F. 1993. Discovery and explanation in biology and medicine. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Schaffner, K.F., and Engelhardt, Jr., H.T. 1998. Medicine, philosophy of. In Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, E. Craig, ed. London: Routledge, pp. 264-269.
Seifert, J. 2004. The philosophical diseases of medicine and their cures: philosophy and ethics of medicine, vol. 1: foundations. New York: Springer.
Simon, J.R. 2010. Advertisement for the ontology of medicine. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 31:333-346.
Smart, J.J.C. 1963. Philosophy and scientific realism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Stempsey, W.E. 2004. The philosophy of medicine: development of a discipline. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 7:243-251.
Stempsey, W.E. 2008. Philosophy of medicine is what philosophers of medicine do. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 51:379-371.
Tonelli, M.R. 1998. The philosophical limits of evidence-based medicine. Academic Medicine 73:1234-1240.
Toombs, S. K., ed. 2001. Handbook of phenomenology and medicine. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
van der Steen, W.J., and Thung, P.J. 1988. Faces of medicine: a philosophical study. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Veatch, R.M. 1991. The patient-physician relations: the patient as partner, part 2. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Velanovich, V. 1994. Does philosophy of medicine exist? A commentary on Caplan. Theoretical Medicine 15:88-91.
Wildes, K.W. 2001. The crisis of medicine: philosophy and the social construction of medicine. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 11:71-86.
Wulff, H.R., Pedesen, S.A., and Rosenberg, R. 1990. Philosophy of medicine: an introduction, 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell.
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medicine/ — Philosophy of Medicine in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
https://www.iep.utm.edu/medicine/ — Philosophy of Medicine at IEP (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

A Guide to Philosophical Terms
1. Absolute (Latin "absolutus") is an unconditional, inevitable. It started to be used in the European philosophy at the end of 18 century. It meant a fundamental principle of all existing, as something united, constant and infinite. As an origin of the world, "absolute" also acts as the beginning of any material existence and its end. In dialectical-materialistic philosophy the concept of "absolute" coincides with the concepts of "existence" and "universe".
2. Absolute and Relative are the categories in which the internal unity and discrepancy of the world of subjects is seen and perceived by us and the phenomena is expressed, its unreceptive internal eternal basis which was understood by materialists as material essence and internal regulation of development of the world, and which was understood by idealists as super global one.
3. Absolute Truth is such concept of human knowledge which has a lasting character and cannot be denied by further development of science and practice.
4. Abstract Thinking is a process of remaking sensual facts, making concepts and operating them.
5. Agnosticism is belief that human beings do not have sufficient evidence to warrant either the affirmation or the denial of a proposition. The term is used especially in reference to our lack of knowledge of the existence of god. In this, the agnostic, who holds that we cannot know whether or not god exists, differs from the atheist, who denies that god exists. 
6. Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies judgments about value, including those of both aesthetics and ethics. 
7. Ambivalency is originated from Latin "ambo" ("both") and "valentia" ("force") and is an estimated duality of sensual and emotional reflection of the world by the person, which is revealed in the same subject or the phenomenon causes opposite emotional conditions of the person simultaneously: satisfaction and dissatisfaction, sympathy and antipathy, love and hatred.
8. Analysis is a process of breaking up a complex concept or expression in order to reveal its simpler constituents, thereby elucidating it implicit meaning. The significance and value of this method is challenged by the paradox that analyses seem bound either to be inadequate or incorrect (if they propose major revisions in our understanding) but trivial and uninformative (if they do not). 
9. Animism is a belief that everything in the universe (or the universe itself) has some kind of soul or is a living being. 
10. Anthropomorphism means attribution of human characteristics to non-human things. Thus, an anthropomorphic religion treats god as a personal being, and anthropomorphic natural theories may suppose that plants, animals, or the earth itself think and feel in the same ways that we do.
11. Asceticism holds that true meaning and beauty can only be non-physical, and therefore one should refrain from all physical pleasures
12. Atomism is a belief that matter is composed of simple, indivisible, physical particles that are too tiny to be observed by human beings. The atomism of such pre-Socratic philosophers as Leucippus and Democritus partly anticipated the theory of the seventeenth century and modern physics.
13. Attribute is a property or feature possessed by a substance. In the philosophical nomenclature employed by of Thomas of Aquinas and Descartes, attributes are commonly regarded as essential to the substances that have them. 
14. Biological aspect of human being is a hereditary-biotic predisposition of its corporal organization to fulfillment of different social   functions.
15. Eternal truth is factual truth or a general position, which relates to rather simple relations between things (2x2=4).
16. Possible means that there is little evidence for and no evidence against.
17. Voluntarism - Belief that the nature of reality, the principles of morality, or the structure of society derives from the determinations of human or (especially) divine will. 
18. Perception - Awareness of an object of thought, especially that of apparently external objects through use of the senses. Since things don't always turn out actually to be as they seem to us, there is ample reason to wonder about the epistemological reliability of sense perception, and theories of perception offer a variety of responses. The skeptical challenge to direct realism is often answered by representative realism, phenomenalism, or idealism. 
19. Vulgar materialism – throughout European philosophy during XIX c., representatives of which applied mechanical, physical and chemical ways of studying biological and social processes and phenomenon. 
20. Gilozoism – throughout philosophy during XVII – XVIII c. representatives of which claimed that psychics is a characteristic not only of living beings, but also subjects of non-living nature.
21. Gnosis (Gnoseology) is the Ancient Greek most general term for knowledge. Thus, Aristotle took it to include both accurate understanding and sensory experience {[aisthêsis]} of the natural world. From the second century CE onward, the "Gnostics" used the term to signify the theological secrets they supposed crucial for genuine Christianity.
22. Civil Society is a collection of non-related to society producers and their organizations and connections, associations, and also family and church.
23. Humanism is a Belief that individual human beings are the fundamental source of all value and have the ability to understand — and perhaps even to control—the natural world by careful application of their own rational faculties. 
24. Taoism is a philosophical school of China and Indochina, which admits the existence, bodiless beginnings and law of all things and happenings. The principle behind Taoism is the necessity for a person to live and coincide along with nature and uphold to her laws.
25. Dual truth theory is an idea introduced in the Middle Ages to the effect that philosophic and natural-scientific truths may not contradict theological truths, to the effect that truth can be understood not only studying “the Holy Scripture” of Christianity and Islam, but studying the nature and philosophic reflections.
26. Jainism is philosophical school of India, which studies the connection between spiritual and materialistic essence of a person, giving the preference of spiritual essence.
27. Sovereignty is a socially important formation for historical providing of tried mechanisms for resolving the contradictions between people, their unions, between society and man.
28. Determinism is a belief that, since each momentary state of the world entails all of its future states, it must be possible (in principle) to offer a causal explanation for everything that happens. When applied to human behavior, determinism is sometimes supposed to be incompatible with the freedom required for moral responsibility. The most extreme variety of determinism in this context is fatalism. 
29. Dogmatism is a point of view that exaggerates the absolute truth, leads to the absolutization of those notions and theories that have already been formed thus denying the process of knowledge development. 
30. Dualism (mind-body) is a belief that mental things and physical things are fundamentally distinct kinds of entities. As a solution to the traditional mind-body problem, dualism derives especially from Descartes and his followers in the seventeenth century. Variations on this theme (including interactionism, parallelism, and epiphenomenalism) arise when dualists try to explain why events in the supposedly separate realms of mind and body seem so well-coordinated with each other.
31. Spirit is a philosophic notion that means non-material, non-corporeal beginning.
32. Soul is understood as the active principle present in living things. Plato distinguished three distinct components of the human soul, and Aristotle supposed that plants and animals, no less than human beings, have souls of some sort. Under the influence of Christianity, medieval philosophers focused on the intellectual component of the human soul, and Descartes identified it as an immaterial substance. 
33. Single and General are dialectical categories. Single – are separate or individual objects, phenomena, processes with all characteristic individual features. General – is the characteristic commonness of peculiarities, processes, connections for objects and phenomena. Special is a joint link between single and general. Single is always shown in some single features. Single – is always the demonstration, the form of existence of general.
34. The natural in a human being is a substantial organization of Homo family (physical-chemical structure, fitness to natural life conditions).
35. Law is the connection that is characterized by signs of material relations, objectivity, universality, necessity, repetition, firmness. Depending on the level of commonness, laws are divided into specific, common and universal.
36. Law of interchangeability of quantitative and qualitative changes - it shows the mechanism of development and form-building of the new. The essence of the law: quantitative changes in a definite moment cause qualitative changes, and a new quality, in its turn, has a reverse influence on the course of corresponding changes.
37. Law of unity and conflict of opposites - points to internal source of development, the reason of change of one quantitative state by another and makes the essence, the kernel of dialectic method. The essence of the law: all subjects and phenomena of the real world have definite characteristic internal opposites, which are in the unity and interaction, conflict between themselves.
38. Law of negation of a negation characterizes the direction of development, form and consecution of development of nature, society and human thinking. The essence of the law: development has controversial, spiral character on the basis of negation of traversed stages of development.
39. Sound/Unsound Mind means a distinction among deductive arguments. A sound argument both has true premises and employs a valid inference; its conclusion must therefore be true. An unsound argument either has one or more false premises or relies upon an invalid inference; its conclusion may be either true or false.
40. Ideal (from Greek “prototype”) is a determinant image or idea that defines the way of thinking and behavior of a human being or the social group of human beings.
41. Idealism is a belief that only mental entities are real, so that physical things exist only in the sense that they are perceived. Berkeley defended his "immaterialism" on purely empiricist grounds, while Kant and Fichte arrived at theirs by transcendental arguments. German, English, and (to a lesser degree) American philosophy during the nineteenth century was dominated by the monistic absolute idealism of Hegel, Bradley, and Royce.
42. Objective idealism is the form of idealism that identifies perception and absolute idea (Hegel), god (in religion), that are the creator of the material world.
43. Subjective idealism is the form of idealism that defines the mind of a human being, feelings to him of the creator of the material world.
44. Intuition is a direct, non-inferential awareness of abstract objects or concrete truths. Plato held that intuition is a superior faculty, and Spinoza supposed that intuition is the highest sort of human knowledge. Bertrand Russell, on the other hand, designated an intuitive as any unreflective instance of knowledge by acquaintance. 
45. Truth is conformity of a proposition to the way things are. Precise analysis of the nature of truth is the subject of the correspondence, coherence, pragmatic, redundancy, and semantic theories of truth.
46. History of philosophy is a study of forming and historical development of philosophical knowledge, beginning from their origin till our time.
47. Yoga is a philosophical trend of India that studies psychological categories and practical psychological training (meditation).
48. Category (e.g. Predicate) is a fundamental class of things in our conceptual framework. In Aristotle's logic specifically, the categories are the ten general modes of being (substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, possession, doing, and undergoing) by reference to which any individual thing may be described. Following the lead of stoic thought, medieval logicians commonly employed only the first four of these ten, but allowed for additional “synthetic categorical terms” that belonged to none of them. Kant employed a schematized table of a dozen categories as the basis for our understanding of the phenomenal realm.
49. Quality is a characteristic of the properties or features of things, whether they are intrinsic or extrinsic to the thing itself and of distinctions between perceived aspects of things. The primary qualities are intrinsic features of the thing itself (its size, shape, internal structure, mass, and momentum, for example), while the secondary qualities are merely its powers to produce sensations in us (its color, odor, sound, and taste, for example). 
50. Classical German Philosophy is a general name for the period of German philosophy of the second half of XVIII century and the first half XIX century.
52. Conditional (from conditionalism) is any statement of the form: "If (antecedent), then (consequent)." Although conditionals may have several uses in ordinary language, all share at least the truth-functional structure of material implication.
53. Concreteness of truth is truth dependence on conditions of time and space, where perception takes place. 
54. Confucianism is a philosophical trend of China originated by Kun-Tzu that studies relations between people in the society, their moral matter and problems of their upbringing. 
55. The Cosmos is a Greek philosophical term for defining the world as the structural-ordered and organized whole. 
56. Culture is the world of human’s values, the way of individuals’ self-realization in social life and their upbringing.
57. Logos (Science) is the term of ancient Greek philosophy that consistently meant: internal law, regular consecution of the world development; internal matter of opinion or conclusion.
58. Materialism is a belief that only physical things truly exist. Materialists claim (or promise) to explain every apparent instance of a mental phenomenon as a feature of some physical object. Prominent materialists in Western thought include the classical atomists, Hobbes, and La Mettrie. 
59. Philosophical method is the commonest approach, the principle of material world study. Two methods are important: 1) dialectical, that studies the material world in development, qualitative changes; 2) metaphysical, that restricts the problem of development only to quantitative changes or different forms of repetition.
60. World outlook is a specific system of human’s spiritual world with the help of which generalized reflection of relations between a human being and the world aimed to self-determination and practical orientation is realized.
61. Monocausalism (from Greek “mono” – one and Latin ”causa” – reason) is a philosophical and medical concept that gives absolute supremacy to the role of only one external reason of action. As for example, disease is understood as being caused by etiological factor – pathogenic microbe. At that the microbe itself with its reactive peculiarities is ignored, the role of internal conditions in disease beginnings isn’t taken into account.
62. Necessity is the connection of phenomena that inevitably results from their internal essential relations and is conditioned by the previous course of their development.
63. Neo positivism is one of the main trends of European philosophy of the 20th century based on the analysis of science, language. 
64. Neo Thomism is a nineteenth and twentieth-century movement (encouraged by Leo XIII's Aeterni Patris in 1879) that attempts to defend the philosophical and theological doctrines of Thomas of Aquinas in a contemporary context. Prominent neo Thomists include Gilson, Maritain, and Lonergan. 
65. Neo-Freudism is a philosophical and psychological trend that arose in the 30ies of our century on the basis of development of Z. Freud’s ideas.
66. Nominalism is a belief that only particular things exist, as opposed to realism. Nominalists hold that a general term or name {Lat. nomine} is applied to individuals that resemble each other, without the need of any reference to an independently existing universal. Prominent representatives of this view include Ockham, Berkeley, and Goodman. 
67. Society is an objective material system connected with nature, subordinated to its regularities, having its own structure and functions.
68. Social being is the real process in the society’s life that is formed by material welfare production and people life’s reflection in inseparable connection with the nature. 
69. Social Laws are the laws of human’s activity on the basis of consciousness, the laws of human’s choice. 
70. Social consciousness is a reflection of the real process of human life in the form of ideas, knowledge, spirits, ideals, i.e. spiritual values. 
71. Public mode of production is the unity of interconnected elements of working process; productive forces and productive relations. 
72. Object of cognition is an external world that became an object of subjective-sensible activity of a social human being.
73. Objective / Subjective Truths is a distinction between propositions or judgments about the way things are and those about how people think or feel about them. The truth of objective claims is presumed to be entirely independent of the merely personal concerns reflected in subjective expressions, even though is difficult to draw the distinction precisely. The legitimacy of this distinction is open to serious question, since it is unclear whether (and how) any knowing subject can achieve genuine objectivity. Nevertheless, because objective truth is supposed to carry undeniable persuasive force, exaggerated claims of objectivity have often been used as tools of intellectual and social oppression. 
74. Ontology is a branch of metaphysics concerned with identifying, in the most general terms, the kinds of things that actually exist. Thus, the "ontological commitments" of a philosophical position include both its explicit assertions and its implicit presuppositions about the existence of entities, substances, or beings of particular kinds. 
75. Relative truth is the knowledge that reflects an object incompletely and approximately.
76. Reflection is the process of change of the external world into feelings, perceptions and conceptions that are images of things of the external world.
77. Sensation is a conscious experience or feeling that apparently conveys awareness of the external world. Empiricists commonly suppose that sensations are the basis for our knowledge of the world. 
78. Pantheism is a belief that god is present in all of nature, rather than transcending it. Spinoza's identification of god with nature ("Deus sive Natura") and Hegel's notion of the Absolute as World-Spirit are usually regarded as forms of pantheism. 
79. Positivism is a belief that natural science, based on observation, comprises the whole of human knowledge. Positivists like Auguste Comte, then, reject as meaningless the claims of theology and metaphysics. The most influential twentieth-century version is logical positivism. 
80. Cognition is a portion of human experience comprising thought, knowledge, belief, and inference (as opposed to sensation, volition, or feeling). 
81. Politics is what pertains to the life of the city { [polis]} or state. Hence, study of citizenship or the art of governance generally. Political philosophers, including Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, and Marx, examine the origins, forms, and limits of political power as exercised in practical life. 
82. Political and legal public consciousness is the real orientation of political institutions to the change of state politics, distribution of powers, first of all, state powers. 
83. Concept (conception) is any abstract notion or idea by virtue of which we apply general terms to things.
84. Pragmatism is an indigenous American (XIX – XX c.) philosophical theory that explains both meaning and truth in terms of the application of ideas or beliefs to the performance of actions that have observable practical outcomes. 
85. Constitutional state is the state for which the main law is constitution, and namely: - definite constitutional measures of state functioning; power distribution; - state submission to laws, passed by the legislative power; - recognition of a person and his unions not only as the object but as the subject of power.
86. Practice is a material human activity aimed at the change of the external world.
87. Notion is a sensible image of a thing that appears in the consciousness at absence of its direct influence on organs of senses on the basis of previous senses.
88. Cause and Effect are categories describing distinction between the events involved in a causal relationship, where the occurrence of one (the cause) is supposed to bring about or produce an occurrence of the other (the effect). Contemporary philosophers often suppose that a causal relationship is best expressed in the counterfactual statement that if the cause had not occured, then the effect would not have occured either.
89. Public production forces are the means of production and people (producers).
90. Production relations are material relations between people in the process of production and consumption of work results and their corresponding forms of ownership, distribution and exchange of products of labor. 
91. Development is a special trend that is characterized by the following signs: definite direction (from the lowest to the highest), complication, renewal (appearance of a new quality), inheritance between consistent stages of development, irreversibility. 
92. Rationalism is reliance on reason {Lat. ratio} as the only reliable source of human knowledge. In the most general application, rationalism offers a naturalistic alternative to appeals to religious accounts of human nature and conduct. 
More specifically, rationalism is the epistemological theory that significant knowledge of the world can best be achieved by means; it therefore stands in contrast to empiricism. Prominent rationalists of the modern period include Descartes, and Spinoza.
93. Realism is a belief that universals exist independently of the particulars that instantiate them. Realists hold that each general term signifies a real feature or quality, which is numerically the same in all the things to which that term applies. Thus, opposed to nominalism. 
94. Relativism is a belief that human judgments are always conditioned by the specific social environment of a particular person, time, or place. Cognitive relativists hold that there can be no universal knowledge of the world, but only diverse interpretations of it. Moral relativists hold that there are no universal standards of moral value, but only the cultural norms of particular societies. 
95. Causation is an interdependence of one phenomenon on the other in some relations. Dialectics, as against to metaphysics, arises from recognition of universe interrelation of phenomena. 
96. Sensualism (from Latin ”sensus” – feeling) is a point of view according to which reliable knowledge can be got only with the help of organs of senses. 
97. Synthesis is the combination or reconciliation of opposed notions. 
98. Scepticism is one of the trends of medieval philosophy, supporters of which denied the possibility of reliable knowledge about nature or a human being.
99. Chance is the connection of phenomena that originates from their external, inessential interrelation. Chance and necessity are paired categories of dialectics that express opposite moments of development.
100. Content and structure are categories of dialectics. Content is a totality of elements and processes of which subjects and phenomena consist. Structure is an organization of content. Content and structure are connected inseparably. Content is always structured; structure is always rich of content.
101. Social activity is the making and reproduction by people and conditions of their life. 
102. Social aspect of a human being  is a reflection of social properties of a human being (to labor, communication, creativity) in all spheres of human activity. 
103. Sophism is a plausible argument that is actually fallacious, especially when someone dishonestly presents it as if it were legitimate reasoning.
104. Subject of cognition is a social human being as an active creative creature, realizing subjective-sensible activity. 
105. Judgment is the mental act of affirming a proposition or the capacity for distinguishing truth from falsity.
106. Essence of a human being is an entire system of socially-oriented forms of its activity, relations on the basis of humanism and culture. 
107. Essence and Phenomenon are ontological philosophical categories. Essence is an internal, relatively firm side of objective reality that is the basis of all changes. Phenomenon is an external, more mobile and changeable side of objective reality.
108. Scholasticism is a philosophical study as practiced by Christian thinkers in medieval universities. The scholastics typically relied upon ancient authorities as sources of dogma and engaged in elaborate disputations over their proper interpretation. These practices were largely discontinued by philosophers of the Renaissance.
109. Theism is a Belief in the existence of god as a perfect being deserving of worship.
110. “Symbol theory”  is a point of view, according to which senses are not images of subjects but only their symbols. 
111. Deduction / Induction are opposite categories and methods of logical thinking. Distinction in logic between types of reasoning, arguments, or inferences. In a deductive argument, the truth of the premises is supposed to guarantee the truth of the conclusion; in an inductive argument, the truth of the premises merely makes it probable that the conclusion is true. 
112. Fatalism is a belief that every event is bound to happen as it does no matter what we do about it. Fatalism is the most extreme form of causal determinism, since it denies that human actions have any causal efficacy. 
113. “Physiological idealism” is a point of view, according to which human senses reflect not the peculiarities of the external world but the peculiarities and the state of subject’s organs of senses. 
114. Philosophy means, literally, love of wisdom. Hence, careful thought about the fundamental nature of the world, the grounds for human knowledge, and the evaluation of human conduct. As an academic discipline, philosophy's chief branches include logic, metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics, and the appropriate aims and methods of each are the concern of metaphilosophy. 
115. Medieval Philosophy  is the general name of philosophical schools and trends in the period of feudal society (from 6th to 15th century).  
116. New Age Philosophy is the general name of schools and trends in the period of 17th – 18th centuries in Europe.
117. Civilization is a proper social organization of public life and culture on the basis of human activity’s unity aimed at reproduction of social wealth and progressive development. 
118. Part and Whole are philosophical categories which reflect relations between totality of subjects (or elements of a separate object) and connection that unites these subjects. Whole – is such an interconnection, such a unity of parts that are characterized by new, integral peculiarities that are not peculiar for subjects separately. Part, which itself is an element of the whole, is the whole and has its elements and structure. Whole becomes the part of the whole itself.
119. Sensory cognition  is the reflection of the external world in sensible images – feelings, perceptions, concepts.
120. Existentialism or Existential Philosophy is a (mostly) twentieth-century approach that emphasizes the primacy of individual existence over any presumed natural essence for human beings. Although they differ on many details, existentialists generally suppose that the fact of my existence as a human being entails both my unqualified freedom to make of myself whatever I will and the awesome responsibility of employing that freedom appropriately, without being driven by anxiety toward escaping into the inauthenticity or self-deception of any conventional set of rules for behavior, even though the entire project may turn out to be absurd. 
121. Eclecticism (from Greek “eklego” – I choose) is a mixture of different, sometimes directly opposite opinions, points of view; it is the way of explaining of phenomena when not main, essential peculiarities but their different, freely taken sides, peculiarities are mechanically united.

Guidelines for seminars
Forms of presentation of the results of the students work at seminars are: oral answer at the seminars, participation in the discussion (reasoned speeches with references to the literature sources), report at seminar with e-presentation, essay writing and defense.
Assessment criteria:
1. Seminar attendance – 1 point for 2-hour class;
2. Participation in the discussion at the seminar — from 1 to 12 points;
3. A report at the seminar — from 1 to 18 points;
4. A report made at the seminar with e-presentation — from 2 to 18 points; 
5. E-presentation or written essay without a report made at the seminar — from 1 to 18 points.

Seminar 1. Philosophy of the Ancient World.
The objective is to reveal the general features of all historical types world outlook and specific features of philosophy as special type of theoretical world outlook.
Seminar outline
1.1. World outlook historical types, structure and functions.
1.2. World outlook structure and functions.
1.3. Philosophy structure and functions.
1.4. Philosophy interaction with personal and social world outlook (medical in particular).
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
1. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy / B. Russell. – New York : Simon and Schuster, 1961. – 837 p.
2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew. – New York : St. Martin’s Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. N.V. Popov, A.A. Zakordonets. Philosophy. Scholarly applicable methods for international students / A.A. Zakordonets, N.V. Popov. Kyiv: Bogomolets National Medical University, 2004. — 72 p.
5. Vermenko A. Yu. Philosophy: [textbook] / A. Yu. Vermenko. – Nizhin : PE Lisenko N.M., 2016. – 150 p.
Internet Sources
http://bjps.oxfordjournals.org/
British Jnl. for the Philosophy of Sci. -- Британський журнал з філософії науки
http://www.thebsps.org/
The British Society for the Philosophy of Science
http://www.dlmps.org/
Division of Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science – International Society
http://www.icsu.org/index.php
International Council of Science
http://www.icsu.org/4_icsumembers/IntScienUn.php?SU=IUHPS
International Union of History and Philosophy of Science
http://sites.google.com/a/dhstweb.org/www/
Division of History of Science and Technology of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science.
http://www2.lse.ac.uk/CPNSS/Home.aspx
http://www2.lse.ac.uk/library/Home.aspx
http://www2.lse.ac.uk/library/eresources/Home.aspx
Centre for Philosophy of Natural and Social Science 
http://jmp.oxfordjournals.org/
The Oxford Journal of Medicine and Philosophy
http://beheco.oxfordjournals.org/
Oxford Behavioral Ecology Journal
http://bioinformatics.oxfordjournals.org/
Oxford Bioinformatics Journal
http://biohorizons.oxfordjournals.org/
Oxford Bioscience Horizons Journal
http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/
Oxford Integrative & Comparative Biology Journal
http://www.sicb.org/
The Society for Integrative & Comparative Biology 
http://worldwidescience.org/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iatrochemistry - cite_note-HIML-15
глобальний науковий портал
http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/
scientific research tool on the web

Seminar 2. Philosophy of the Ancient World.
The objective is to reveal the specific and general features of Ancient World main philosophical schools formation and development in East and West.
The seminar is aimed at revealing the specific and general features of Ancient World main philosophical schools formation and development in Eastern and Western world. It is advisable to focus on canonical text sources of ancient Indian and ancient Chinese philosophy, determine the main schools and directions of development of philosophical thought in ancient India and ancient China. The main solutions of problem of world structure, laws of its existence and possible ways of knowledge acquiring in all periods of Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy should also be examined. The interpretations of problem of human essence, happiness and destiny of man proposed by Ancient World authors should also be revealed.
Seminar outline
2.1. Philosophy of Ancient India
2.2. Philosophy of Ancient China.
2.3. Early period of Ancient Greek Philosophy: Tales, Heraclitus, Pythagoras, atomistic theory of Democritus.
2.4. Classical period of Ancient Greek philosophy: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle.
2.5. Roman and Hellenic philosophy: Epicureanism, skepticism, stoicism, neo-Platonism.
Literature:
1. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy / B. Russell. – New York : Simon and Schuster, 1961. – 837 p.
2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martin’s Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. Vermenko A.Y. Philosophy. Textbook for English speaking students / A.Y. Vermenko. — Ніжин: ПП Лисенко, 2016. — 236 с.

Seminar 3. Philosophy of Middle Ages and Philosophy of Renaissance.
The objective is to analyze development of philosophical thought in Western Europe in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
In order to understand the philosophy of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance properly, it is necessary to identify and analyze the content of Biblical ideas that formed the foundation of medieval philosophy and outlined its specificity compared to the ancient tradition (monotheism, creationism, providentialism); to outline chronological framework issues and the main stages of medieval philosophy (apologetics, patristic, scholastic); to find out the basic ideas of the philosophy of the Renaissance, role of pantheism in the development of science of the Renaissance; to understand the difference between the fundamental principles of the Renaissance and Reformation.
Seminar outline
3.1. Early medieval philosophy: patristic and apologetics.
3.2. Late medieval philosophy: scholastic school s of realism and nominalism.
3.3. The sources, main ideas and representatives of Renaissance Philosophy. Political and anthropological schools of Renaissance philosophy. Pico Della Mirandola, Nicola Machiavelli, Erasmus from Rotterdam. Renaissance and Reformation.
3.4. Nicolas of Cuza, Nicolas Copernicus, G. Galileo, G. Bruno and other representatives of Renaissance ontology, gnoseology and methodology.
Literature:
1. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy / B. Russell. – New York : Simon and Schuster, 1961. – 837 p.
2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew / New York : St. Martin’s Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. Vermenko A.Y. Philosophy. Textbook for English speaking students / A.Y. Vermenko. — Ніжин: ПП Лисенко, 2016. — 236 с.
5. Davies B. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion / B. Davies. – Oxford, New York : Oxford University Press, 1993. – 344 p.
6. Connell D. Essays in Metaphysics / D. Connell. – Dublin : Four Courts Press, 1996. – 232 p.
7. Redfield R. The Little Community, and Peasant Society and Culture / R. Redfield. – Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1985. – 288 p.

Seminar 4. European Philosophy of XVII- XVIII Century.
The objective is to clarify the nature of philosophical thought of the New Age and the Enlightenment and its world outlook orientations.
In order to highlight the philosophy of the New Age and the Enlightenment properly it is required to clarify its world outlook orientations underlying the transition from Aristotelian and Thomism understanding of the world as a space to a modern interpretation of the world as the Universe; to reveal the specific features of the modern phenomenon of the scientific world picture; to focus on "new" philosophy of Francis Bacon, Descartes, John. Locke; to focus on the differences between the two forms of social contract theory presented in absolutist conception of Hobbes and John Locke constitutional concept; to explain the fundamental principles of the Enlightenment as a philosophical and political movement.
Seminar outline
4.1. The rationalist philosophy of Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz.
4.2. Empiricist science of F. Bacon. Mechanical materialism of T. Hobbes. Classical sensualist concept of J. Locke. Political concepts of Lock and Hobbes.
4.3. Subjective idealism of D. Hume and G. Berkley.
4.4. Philosophy of Enlightenment (Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, La Metri, Diderot).
Literature:
1. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy / B. Russell. – New York : Simon and Schuster, 1961. – 837 p.
2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martin’s Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. Vermenko A.Y. Philosophy. Textbook for English speaking students / A.Y. Vermenko. — Ніжин: ПП Лисенко, 2016. — 236 с.
5. Cohen C. Four Systems/ C. Cohen. –  New York : Random House, 1982. – 168 p.
6 Sallis J. Deconstruction and Philosophy / J. Sallis. – Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1987. – 207 p.
7. Strauss L. History of Political Philosophy/ L. Strauss, J. Cropsey. Chicago, London : The University of Chicago Press, 1987. – 966 p.
8. Hume D. A Treatise of Human Nature/ D. Hume. – Oxford: O.U.P., 1951. – 338 p.
9. Locke J. Two Treatises of Government / J. Locke. New York :  G. Routledge, 1963. – 591 p.

Seminar 5. German Classical Philosophy of ХІХ century.
The objective is to analyze the philosophical views of main representatives of German classical philosophy and their influence on the further development of philosophy.
The proper study of German classical philosophy of XIX century demands mastering of: the ontological, epistemological, ethical teaching of Immanuel Kant, especially his teaching about phenomenal and nominal ontological objects, general categories of knowledge and moral imperatives; the basic principles of “scientific teaching”, activity and law philosophy of J. Fichte; main content of “absolute totality” principles in “Philosophy of nature” of F. Shelling; basic laws and principles of dialectics of G. Hegel and their controversy to his philosophical system; main content of L. Feuerbach concepts of anthropological materialism, proper interpersonal communication and “religion of humanity”; main principles of dialectical materialism and historical materialism of K. Marx and F. Engels.
Seminar outline
5.1. The ontological, epistemological, ethical teaching of Immanuel Kant.
5.2. “Scientific teaching ”, activity and law philosophy of J. Fichte.
5.3. “Philosophy of nature” of F. Shelling. Philosophical system and dialectical method of G. Hegel.
5.4. Anthropological materialism of L. Feuerbach.
5.5. Dialectical materialism of K. Marx and F. Engels.
Literature:
1. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy / B. Russell. – New York : Simon and Schuster, 1961. – 837 p.
2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martins Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. Vermenko A.Y. Philosophy. Textbook for English speaking students / A.Y. Vermenko. — Ніжин: ПП Лисенко, 2016. — 236 с.
5. Kant I. Critique of Pure Reason [Ed. by N. Kemp-Smith] / I. Kant. – University of Alberta, 1929. – 124 p.
6. Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling's Sämmtliche Werke, [SW], ed. K.F.A. Schelling, I Abtheilung Vols. 1–10, II Abtheilung Vols. 1–4, Stuttgart: Cotta, 1856–61. 
7. The Historisch-kritische Ausgabe, im Auftrag der Schelling-Kommission der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, edited by H. M. Baumgartner, W.G. Jacobs, H. Krings, Stuttgart 1976
8. Erster Entwurf eines Systems der Naturphilosophie, 1799, (First Plan of a System of the Philosophy of Nature).
9. System des transcendentalen Idealismus, 1800, System of Transcendental Idealism, translated by P. Heath, introduction M. Vater, Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978.
10. Philosophie und Religion, 1804, (Philosophy and Religion).
11. Philosophie der Offenbarung, 1842–3, (Philosophy of Revelation). Part translation in The Grounding of Positive Philosophy ed. and trans. B. Matthews.
12. The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy, trans. H. S. Harris and W. Cerf, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1977.
13. Phenomenology of Spirit, trans. A. V. Miller, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977.
14. Hegel's Preface to the Phenomenology of Spirit, translation and running commentary by Yirmiyahu Yovel, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2005.
15. Hegel's Philosophy of Mind: Being Part Three of the Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences, trans. William Wallace, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971.
16. Hegel: Lectures on the History of Philosophy, 1825–6, three volumes, ed. and trans. Robert F. Brown, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006–9.

Seminar 6. Modern Philosophy.
The objective 1 is to analyze the main ideas of representatives of ХХ century rationalist philosophy schools, exactly positivism, neo Marxism, pragmatism, phenomenology, hermeneutics. The objective 2 is to analyze the basic ideas of main representatives of non-classical philosophy irrational schools and their understanding of problems of freedom, responsibility, life and death of man.
The study of the non-classical philosophy must identify causes of its formation, main differences from the classical stage of philosophy development, and its influence on the development of modern science and society organization principles. In order to achieve such the goal the main historical periods and schools of positive knowledge philosophy, understanding of problems of language and communication in hermeneutics philosophy, phenomenological concepts in ontology and gnoseology, the most prominent ideas of Neo Marxist philosophy of XX-XXI century and philosophy of structuralism and postmodernism should be discussed. The most important ideas of main schools of ХХ century irrational philosophy: “philosophy of life”, philosophy of psychological analysis, philosophy of existence and neo Thomism should be discussed. Their understanding of problems of freedom, responsibility, life and death of man and its influence on the development of modern personal and social psychology should be revealed.
Seminar outline
6.1. Main historical periods and schools of positive knowledge philosophy (J. Mill, H. Spencer, O. Conte, E. Mach, R. Avenarius, B. Russell, L. Wittgenstein, C. Popper).
6.2. Main ideas and representatives of pragmatic philosophy ().
6.3. Main ideas and representatives of philosophy of existence (M. Heidegger, C. Jaspers, P. Sartre, A. Camue).
6.4. Philosophy of psychological analysis (Z. Freud, K. Adler, K. Jung, V. Frankl).
6.5. Philosophy of biosphere, noosphere and global problems (E. Le Rue, P. T. de Sharden, V. Vernadskiy, A. Peccei, C. Lorentz, J. Tinbergen)
6.6. Philosophy of life and philosophy of will (A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche, A. Bergson).
6.7. Philosophy of neo Thomism.
6.8. Problems of language and communication in hermeneutics philosophy.
6.9. Phenomenological concept of E. Husserl.
6.10. Neo Marxist philosophy of XX-XXI century.
6.11. The philosophy of structuralism and postmodernism.
Literature:
1. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy / B. Russell. – New York : Simon and Schuster, 1961. – 837 p.
2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martins Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. Vermenko A.Y. Philosophy. Textbook for English speaking students / A.Y. Vermenko. — Ніжин: ПП Лисенко, 2016. — 236 с.
5. Kymlicka W. Contemporary Political Philosophers/ W. Kymlicka. –Oxford, 2002. – 512 p.
6. Brentano F. C. Sensory and Noetic Consciousness / F. C. Brentano. – London : Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981. – 139 p.
7. Cohen C. Four Systems/ C. Cohen. –  New York : Random House, 1982. – 168 p.
8. Dewey J. Theory of the Moral Life / J. Dewey. – New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1960. – 145 p.
9. Dummett M. Frege: Philosophy of Language / M. Dummett. – Harvard : Harvard University Press, 1993. – 752 p.
10. Fromm E. To Have or to Be?/ E. Fromm. – London, New York : Continuum, 1968. – 182 p.
11. Fromm E. Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics / E. Fromm. – New York, Toronto : Henry Holt and Company, 1990. – 272 p.
12. Gibson Q. The Existence Principle / Q. Gibson. – Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998. – 192 p.
13. Heidegger M. The Basic Problems of Phenomenology / M. Heidegger. – Bloomington : Indiana University Press, 1988. – 432 p.
14. Gadamer H-G. Dialogue and Dialectics / H-G. Gadamer. – Yale : Yale University Press, 1983. – 240 p.
15. James W. Pragmatism / W. James. – Cambridge : Harvard University Press, 1975. – 275 p.
16. Kravchenko B. Social Change and National Consciousness in Twentieth Century Ukraine / B. Kravchenko. – London: Macmillan, 1985. – 423 p.
17. Lysiak-Rudnyisky I. Essays in Modern Ukrainian History / I. Lysiak-Rudnyisky. – Edmonton : University of Alberta, 1987. – 491 p.
18. Marcuse H. The Aesthetic Dimension / H. Marcuse. – Boston : Beacon Press, 1978. – 108 p.
19. Marcuse H. One-Dimensional Man/ H. Marcuse. – Boston : Beacon Press, 1966. – 182 p.
20. Miller B. The Fullness of Being / B. Miller. – Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2002. – 175 p.
21. Moore G. E. Principia Ethica / G. E. Moore. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. – 332 p.
22. Nisbet R. Prejudices. A Philosophical Dictionary/ R. Nisbet. – Cambridge et al.: Harvard University Press, 1982. -348 p.
23. Parsons T. Nonexistent Objects / T. Parsons. – New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980. – 112 p.
24. Popper K. Science: Conjectures and Refutations. The Growth of Scientific Knowledge/ K. Popper. – London : Routledge, 1963. – 45 p.
25. Popper K. The Poverty of Historicism / K. Popper. – London : Routledge, 2002. – 176 p.
26. Safranski R. Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy / R. Safranski. – Harvard : Harvard University Press, 1990. – 404 p.
27. Sallis J. Deconstruction and Philosophy / J. Sallis. – Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1987. – 207 p.
28. Strauss L. History of Political Philosophy/ L. Strauss, J. Cropsey. Chicago, London : The University of Chicago Press, 1987. – 966 p.
29. Williams B. Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy / B. Williams. – Routledge, 2011. – 296 p.
30. Williams C. J. F. Being, Identity, and Truth / C. J. F. Williams. – Clarendon : Clarendon Press, 1992. – 240 p.
31. Whitehead A. N. Process and Reality / A. N. Whitehead. – New York, 1979. – 413 p.

Seminar 7. Ontology (Philosophy of Being).
The objective is to reveal the philosophical content of the term of being, review all the main philosophical concepts of being and study of the relationship of substance, space, time and movement.
In preparation for this seminar the considerable attention must be paid to the basic concepts of being, main forms of being, reveal of the nature of space and time, their characteristics and interrelation. It is advisable to focus on the notion of substance and its interpretation in different philosophical traditions. Significant attention should be paid to the concept of material substance, the problem of the relationship and interaction of levels of systematic organization of material world (inorganic, organic, social).
Seminar outline
7.1. Being as the basic philosophical category. The relationship of the various forms of being. Materialistic, idealistic, pluralistic and non-substantial interpretations of the world.
7.2. The classic and modern scientific theories about principles and levels of world organization.
7.3. Space and time interpretation in classic and modern philosophical and scientific world outlook.
7.4. Dialectics, synergetic and other variants of theoretical interpretation of main laws of world existence and development.
7.5. Specific features of modern general theoretical (scientific) picture of world.
Literature:
1. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy / B. Russell. – New York : Simon and Schuster, 1961. – 837 p.
2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martin’s Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. Miller B. The Fullness of Being / B. Miller. – Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2002. – 175 p.
5. Vermenko A.Y. Philosophy. Textbook for English speaking students / A.Y. Vermenko. — Ніжин: ПП Лисенко, 2016. — 236 с.
6. Whitehead A. N. Process and Reality / A. N. Whitehead. – New York, 1979. – 413 p.

Seminar 8. Problem of a Human in Philosophy.
The objective is to explore main concepts of anthropogenesis, to analyze interrelation of biological, social and spiritual in human, to study notions of "culture" and "civilization", their similarities and differences
The preparation to the seminar requires study of problem of human being as a universal object of philosophical research and main interpretations of problem of man in history of philosophy, main philosophical and scientific concepts of anthropogenesis (human origin), the interrelation of biological, social and spiritual in a human, interaction of essence and existence of human, classic and modern philosophical theories of interrelation between history, culture and civilization.
Seminar outline
8.1. Human being as a universal object of philosophical research. The problem of man in history of philosophy.
8.2. Problem of human origin. Main philosophical and scientific concepts of anthropogenesis.
8.3. The interrelation of biological, social and spiritual in a human.
8.4. The interaction of essence and existence of human.
8.5. The problem of interrelation between history, culture and civilization. Modern concept of global civilization.
Literature:
1. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy / B. Russell. – New York : Simon and Schuster, 1961. – 837 p.
2. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martins Press, 1979. – 768 p.
3. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
4. Vermenko A.Y. Philosophy. Textbook for English speaking students / A.Y. Vermenko. — Ніжин: ПП Лисенко, 2016. — 236 с.

Seminar 9. Gnoseology (Theory of Knowledge) and Problems of Human Conscience. General methodology: Philosophical Aspects
The objective is to study the process of cognitive activity of man and the limits of its knowledge, to analyze main levels and forms of the cognitive process and criteria of true knowledge. The preparation to the seminar requires study of gnoseology (general theory of knowledge) as a branch of philosophy, its’ object and main categories, the problem of subject and object of knowledge in philosophy, sensual and rational level of cognitive process, their main components and interrelation, empiric and theoretic level of scientific knowledge and their main components, the main theoretical criteria of true knowledge, the interaction between theory and practice, the role of knowledge and intuition in human cognition and creativity.
Seminar outline
9.1. Gnoseology as a branch of philosophy, its’ object and main categories. The problem of knowledge in philosophy. The subject and object of knowledge. Sensual and rational level of cognitive process, their main components and interrelation.
9.2. Empiric and theoretic level of scientific knowledge, their main components and interrelation.
9.3. The knowledge and truth. The main theoretical criteria of true knowledge. The main philosophical concepts of interaction between theory and practice. Cognitive process and human creativity. The role of intuition in cognition and creativity.
Literature:
1. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martins Press, 1979. – 768 p.
2. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
3. Nisbet R. Prejudices. A Philosophical Dictionary/ R. Nisbet. – Cambridge et al.: Harvard University Press, 1982. -348 p.
4. Popper K. Science: Conjectures and Refutations. The Growth of Scientific Knowledge/ K. Popper. – London : Routledge, 1963. – 45 p.
5. Vermenko A.Y. Philosophy. Textbook for English speaking students / A.Y. Vermenko. — Ніжин: ПП Лисенко, 2016. — 236 с.
6. Williams C. J. F. Being, Identity, and Truth / C. J. F. Williams. – Clarendon : Clarendon Press, 1992. – 240 p.
7. Woolgar S. Science: The Very Idea / S. Woolgar. – London, New York, 1988. – 160 p.

Seminar 10. General methodology: Philosophical Aspects
The objective is to discuss philosophical aspects of general methodology, the general scientific methods of research and philosophical methods of cognition.
The preparation to the seminar requires study of general characteristics of method and methodology, main theories of methods appliance existed in history of philosophy, detailed characteristics of the general theoretic methods of research, the problem of observation and experiment interaction in process of cognition, specific features and problems of modern science methodology and philosophical methods of cognition: dialectical, phenomenological, hermeneutical etc.
Seminar outline
10.1. The methods of cognitive and practical activity — general characteristics. Method and methodology. The general theoretic and logical methods of research: analysis, synthesis, analogical method, abstraction, induction, deduction, axiomatic, model making.
10.2. Philosophical methods of cognition: dialectical, phenomenological and hermeneutical.
10.3. The main specifics, advantages and problems of modern science methodology. Observation and experiment: main features and varieties. Computer model making as most widespread method of modern science.
Literature:
1. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martins Press, 1979. – 768 p.
2. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
3. Vermenko A.Y. Philosophy. Textbook for English speaking students / A.Y. Vermenko. — Ніжин: ПП Лисенко, 2016. — 236 с.

Seminar 11. Philosophy of Society.
The objective is to study the general characteristic of philosophy of society, main approaches to understanding of society in history of philosophy, main spheres of social life structure of a society and its historical variability, main social groups and their types.
The preparation to the seminar requires study of the main concepts of "society" in philosophical tradition, natural condition of social being and role of geographical environment in the life of society, demographical factors for social development, activity as a main way of social being, main modes of material values production and its structure, specifics of economical, social and ecological situation of modern Ukraine. As well the preparation to the seminar requires study of the essence and structure of social relationships, main levels of social structure, social groups and their types, historical forms of communities, main theories of a nation’s nature and its characteristics in the world philosophy, main types of social institutions and their functions, general structure of political system of a society, state essence, origination, functions and historical types, origination and content of civil and democratic society concept.
Seminar outline
11.1. Philosophy of society — general characteristic. The concept of "society" in philosophical tradition. Main approaches to understanding of society. Naturalistic, social and psychological concepts of society. Natural condition of social being. Geographical environment and its role in the life of society. Historical types of nature exploitation. Geographical determinism and modern geo politics. Agricultural production as a major factor in nature exploitation. Demographical factors for social development. Qualitative state of population. Historical types of population reproduction. Law of Malthus. Neo-Malthusianism and social ecology. Social and ecological situation in Ukraine.
11.2. Activity as a way of social being. Multiplicity in views on basis of social development. Conception and structure of social production. Factors of social production. Mode of material values production and its structure. Property: object and subject of property and its historical types. Economical processes and problems of individual alienation. Present economical situation in Ukraine and its problems.
11.3. Essence and structure of social relationships. Main levels of social structure. Social structure of traditional, industrial and informational society. Social mobility and social stratification. Social groups and their types. Historical forms of communities: family, tribe, folk. Family, its functions and historical types.
11.4. Main theories of a nation’s nature and its characteristics in the world philosophy. Main variants of interpretation of the interrelations between national and general human (nationalism, internationalism, cosmopolitism). National state. Idea of national state in political and philosophical theories. Origination and development of Ukrainian nation.
11.5. Society as a system of social relationships and their typology. System of regulations in social relationships. Types of social institutions. Politics as a regulative mechanism of functioning and developing of a society. Political relationships. Conception of "a political system of a society". Structure of political system of a society. State: essence, origination and historical types. Functions of a state. Institute of power. Types of government and forms of state polity. Political regime. Political elite and people. Civil society: its origination and basis. The essence of public organizations, movements and their types in Ukraine. Political parties, their functions and types.
Literature:
1. An Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ General Editor G.L.R. Parkinson. –Routledge, 1989. – 624 p.
2. Dewey J. Theory of the Moral Life / J. Dewey. – New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1960. – 145 p.
3. Flew A. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Revised Second Edition/ A. Flew /. New York : St. Martins Press, 1979. – 768 p.
4. Fromm E. To Have or to Be?/ E. Fromm. – London, New York : Continuum, 1968. – 182 p.
5. Fromm E. Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics / E. Fromm. – New York, Toronto : Henry Holt and Company, 1990. – 272 p.
6. Kravchenko B. Social Change and National Consciousness in Twentieth Century Ukraine / B. Kravchenko. – London: Macmillan, 1985. – 423 p.
7. Kymlicka W. Contemporary Political Philosophers/ W. Kymlicka. –Oxford, 2002. – 512 p.
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9. Lysiak-Rudnyisky I. Essays in Modern Ukrainian History / I. Lysiak-Rudnyisky. – Edmonton : University of Alberta, 1987. – 491 p.
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Seminar 12. Philosophy of Medicine.
The objective is to study the general characteristic of philosophy of medicine, main approaches to understanding of medicine and human health in history of philosophy, main spheres of medicine as both theoretical science and practical activity and their philosophical explanation and evaluation, axiological, ethical and methodological aspects of medicine.
Seminar outline
12.1. The object of research of philosophy of medicine and its place in the system of modern knowledge.
12.2. Philosophical aspects of medicine as both theoretical science and practical activity.
12.3. Historical development of philosophy of medicine.
12.4. Axiological and ethical problems of modern medicine.
Literature and internet sources for philosophy of medicine
Achinstein, P. 1983. The nature of explanation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Andersen, H. 2001. The history of reductionism versus holism approaches to scientific research. Endeavor25:153-156.
Aristotle. 1966. Metaphysics. H.G. Apostle, trans. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Baglivi, G. 1723. Practice of physick, 2nd edition. London: Midwinter.
Bartlett, E. 1844. Essay on the philosophy of medical science. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard.
Beauchamp, T., and Childress, J.F. (2001) Principles of biomedical ethics, 5th edition. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Black, D.A.K. (1968) The logic of medicine. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.
Bock, G.R., and Goode, J.A., eds. 1998. The limits of reductionism in biology. London: John Wiley.
Boorse, C. 1975. On the distinction between disease and illness. Philosophy and Public Affairs 5:49-68.
Boorse, C. 1987. Concepts of health. In Health care ethics: an introduction, D. VanDeVeer and T. Regan, eds. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, pp. 359-393.
Boorse, C. 1997. A rebuttal on health. In What is disease?, J.M. Humber and R.F. Almeder, eds. Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press, pp. 1-134.
Brody, H. 1992. The healer’s power. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Caplan, A.L. 1986 Exemplary reasoning? A comment on theory structure in biomedicine. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 11:93-105.
Caplan, A.L. 1992. Does the philosophy of medicine exist? Theoretical Medicine 13:67-77.
Carter, K.C. 2003. The rise of causal concepts of disease: case histories. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
Cassell, E.J. 2004. The nature of suffering and the goals of medicine, 2nd edition. New York: Oxford University Press.
Clouser, K.D., and Gert, B. 1990. A critique of principlism. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 15:219-236.
Collingwood, R.G. 1940. An essay on metaphysics. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Coulter, A. 1999. Paternalism or partnership? British Medical Journal 319:719-720.
Culver, C.M., and Gert, B. 1982. Philosophy in medicine: conceptual and ethical issues in medicine and psychiatry. New York: Oxford University Press.
Daschle, T. 2008. Critical: what we can do about the health-care crisis. New York: Thomas Dunne Books.
Davis, R.B. 1995. The principlism debate: a critical overview. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 20:85-105.
Davis-Floyd, R., and St. John, G. 1998. From doctor to healer: the transformative journey. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Dummett, M.A.E. 1991. The logical basis of metaphysics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Elsassar, W.M. 1998. Reflections on a theory of organisms: holism in biology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Emanuel, E.J., and Emanuel, L.L. 1992 Four models of the physician-patient relationship. Journal of American Medical Association 267:2221-2226.
Engel, G.L. 1977. The need for a new medical model: a challenge for biomedicine. Science 196:129-136.
Engelhardt, Jr., H.T. 1996. The foundations of bioethics, 2nd edition. New York: Oxford University Press.
Engelhardt, Jr., H.T., ed., 2000. Philosophy of medicine: framing the field. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Engelhardt, Jr., H.T., and Erde, E.L. 1980. Philosophy of medicine. In A guide to culture of science, technology, and medicine, P.T. Durbin, ed. New York: Free Press, pp. 364-461.
Engelhardt, Jr., H.T., and Wildes, K.W. Philosophy of medicine. 2004. In Encyclopedia of bioethics, 3rd edition, S.G. Post, ed. New York: Macmillan, pp. 1738-1742.
Evans, A.S. 1993. Causation and disease: a chronological journey. New York: Plenum.
Evans, M., Louhiala, P. and Puustinen, P., eds. 2004. Philosophy for medicine: applications in a clinical context. Oxon, UK: Radcliffe Medical Press.
Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group. 1992. Evidence-based medicine: a new approach to teaching the practice of medicine. Journal of American Medical Association 268:2420 - 2425.
Feinstein, A.R. .1967. Clinical judgment. Huntington, NY: Krieger.
Feinstein, A.R. 1994. Clinical judgment revisited: the distraction of quantitative models. Annals of Internal Medicine 120:799-805.
Fulford K.W.M.: Moral Theory and Medical Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, xxi. - 311 pp.
Gardiner, P. 2003. A virtue ethics approach to moral dilemmas in medicine. Journal of Medical Ethics 29:297-302.
Gert, B., Culver, C.M., and Clouser, K.D. 1997. Bioethics: a return to fundamentals. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Gillies, D.A. 2005. Hempelian and Kuhnian approaches in the philosophy of medicine: the Semmelweis case.Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Science 36:159-181.
Gillon, R. 1986. Philosophical medical ethics. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Goldman, G.M. 1990. The tacit dimension of clinical judgment. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 63:47-61.
Golub, E.S. 1997. The limits of medicine: how science shapes our hope for the cure. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Goodyear-Smith, F., and Buetow, S. 2001. Power issues in the doctor-patient relationship. Health Care Analysis 9:449-462.
Groopman, J. 2007. How doctors think. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Halpern, J. 2001. From detached concern to empathy: humanizing medical practice. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hampton, J.R. 2002. Evidence-based medicine, opinion-based medicine, and real-world medicine.Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 45:549-68.
Harman, G.H. 1965. The inference to the best explanation. Philosophical Review 74:88-95.
Haug, M.R., and Lavin, B. 1983. Consumerism in medicine: challenging physician authority. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Häyry, H. 1991. The limits of medical paternalism. London: Routledge.
Hempel, C.G. 1965. Aspects of scientific explanation and other essays in the philosophy of science. New York: Free Press.
Hempel, C.G., and Oppenheim, P. 1948. Studies in the logical of explanation. Philosophy of science 15:135-175.
Hill, A.B. 1965. The environment and disease: association or causation? Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 58:295-300.
Howick, J.H. 2011. The philosophy of evidence-based medicine. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley- Blackwell.
Illari, P.M., Russo, F., and Williamson, J., eds. 2011. Causality in the sciences. New York: Oxford University Press.
Illingworth, P.M.L. 1988. The friendship model of physician/patient relationship and patient autonomy.Bioethics 2:22-36.
James, D.N. 1989. The friendship model: a reply to Illingworth. Bioethics 3:142-146.
Johansson, I., and Lynøe, N. 2008. Medicine and philosophy: a twenty-first century introduction. Frankfurt: Ontos Verlag.
Jonsen, A.R. 2000. A short history of medical ethics. New York: Oxford University Press.
Kant, Immanuel. Critique of Practical Reason (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993), originally published 1788.
Kant, Immanuel. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1956), originally published 1785.
Kaptchuk, T.J. 2000. The web that has no weaver: understanding Chinese medicine. Chicago, IL: Contemporary Books.
Kadane, J.B. 2005. Bayesian methods for health-related decision making. Statistics in Medicine 24:563-567.
Katz, J. 2002. The silent world of doctor and patient. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
King, L.S. 1978. The philosophy of medicine. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Kleinman, A. 1988. The illness narratives: suffering, healing and the human condition. New York: Basic Books.
Knight, J.A. 1982. The minister as healer, the healer as minister. Journal of Religion and Health 21:100-114.
Konner, M. 1993. Medicine at the crossroads: the crisis in health care. New York: Pantheon Books.
Kovács, J. 1998. The concept of health and disease. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 1:31- 39.
Kulkarni, A.V. 2005. The challenges of evidence-based medicine: a philosophical perspective. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 8:255-260.
Lad, V. D. 2002. Textbook of Ayurveda: fundamental principles of Ayurveda, volume 1. Albuquerque, NM: Ayurvedic Press.
Larson, J.S. 1991. The measurement of health: concepts and indicators. New York: Greenwood Press.
Le Fanu, J. 2002. The rise and fall of modern medicine. New York: Carroll & Graf.
Levi, B.H. 1996. Four approaches to doing ethics. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 21:7-39.
Liberati, A. Vineis, P. 2004. Introduction to the symposium: what evidence based medicine is and what it is not. Journal of Medical Ethics 30:120-121.
Lipton, P. 2004. Inference to the best explanation, 2nd edition. New York: Routledge.
Little, M. 1995. Humane medicine Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Loewy, E.H. 2002. Bioethics: past, present, and an open future. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 11:388-397.
Looijen, R.C. 2000. Holism and reductionism in biology and ecology: the mutual dependence of higher and lower level research programmes. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Maier, B., and Shibles, W.A. 2010. The philosophy and practice of medicine and bioethics: a naturalistic-humanistic approach. New York: Springer.
Marcum, J.A. 2005. Metaphysical presuppositions and scientific practices: reductionism and organicism in cancer research. International Studies in the Philosophy of Science 19:31-45.
Marcum, J.A. 2008. An introductory philosophy of medicine: humanizing modern medicine. New York: Springer.
Marcum, J.A. 2009. The conceptual foundations of systems biology: an introduction. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Scientific Publishers.
Marcum, J.A., and Verschuuren, G.M.N. 1986. Hemostatic regulation and Whitehead’s philosophy of organism.Acta Biotheoretica 35:123-133.
Matthews, J.N.S. 2000. An introduction to randomized controlled clinical trials. London: Arnold.
May, W.F. 2000. The physician’s covenant: images of the healer in medical ethics, 2nd edition. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press.
Meehl, P.E. 1954. Clinical versus statistical prediction: a theoretical analysis and a review of the literature. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Montgomery, K. 2006. How doctors think: clinical judgment and the practice of medicine. New York: Oxford University Press.
Morabia, A. 1996. P.C.A. Louis and the birth of clinical epidemiology. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 49:1327-1333.
Murphy, E.A. 1997. The logic of medicine, 2nd edition. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Nesse, R.M. (2001) On the difficulty of defining disease: a Darwinian perspective. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 4:37-46.
Nordenfelt, L. 1995. On the nature of health: an action-theory approach, 2nd edition. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Overby, P. 2005. The moral education of doctors. New Atlantis 10:17-26.
Papakostas, Y.G., and Daras, M.D. 2001. Placebos, placebo effects, and the response to the healing situation: the evolution of a concept. Epilepsia 42:1614-1625.
Parker, M. 2002. Whither our art? Clinical wisdom and evidence-based medicine. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 5:273-280.
Pellegrino, E.D., and Thomasma, D.C. 1981. A philosophical basis of medical practice: toward a philosophy and ethic of the healing professions. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pellegrino, E.D., and Thomasma, D.C. 1988. For the patient’s good: the restoration of beneficence in health care. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pellegrino, E.D., and Thomasma, D.C. 1993. The virtues in medical practice. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pole, S. 2006. Ayurvedic medicine: the principles of traditional practice. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier.
Post, S.G. 1994. Beyond adversity: physician and patient as friends? Journal of Medical Humanities 15:23-29.
Project of the ABIM Foundation, ACP-ASIM Foundation, and European Federation of Internal Medicine 2002. Medical professionalism in the new millennium: a physician charter. Annals of Internal Medicine 136:243-246.
Quante, M., and Vieth, A. 2002. Defending principlism well understood. The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 27:621 – 649.
Reeder, L.G. 1972. The patient-client as a consumer: some observations on the changing professional-client relationship. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 13:406-412.
Reiser, S.J. 1978. Medicine and the reign of technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Relman, A.S. 2007. A second opinion: rescuing America’s healthcare. New York: Perseus Books.
Reznek, L. 1987. The nature of disease. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Rizzi, D.A., and Pedersen, S.A. 1992. Causality in medicine: towards a theory and terminology. Theoretical Medicine 13:233-254.
Roter, D. 2000. The enduring and evolving nature of the patient-physician relationship. Patient Education and Counseling 39:5-15.
Rothman, K.J. 1976. Causes. Journal of Epidemiology 104:587-592.
Ryff, C.D., and Singer, B. 1998. Human health: new directions for the next millennium. Psychological Inquiry 9:69-85.
Sackett, D.L., Richardson, W.S., Rosenberg, W., and Haynes, R.B. 1998. Evidence-based medicine: how to practice and teach EBM. London: Churchill Livingstone.
Salmon, W. 1984. Scientific explanation and the causal structure of the world. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Samaniego, F.J. 2010. A comparison of the Bayesian and frequentist approaches to estimation. New York: Springer.
Schaffner, K.F. 1993. Discovery and explanation in biology and medicine. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Schaffner, K.F., and Engelhardt, Jr., H.T. 1998. Medicine, philosophy of. In Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, E. Craig, ed. London: Routledge, pp. 264-269.
Schwartz, W.B., Gorry, G.A., Kassirer, J.P., and Essig, A. 1973. Decision analysis and clinical judgment.American Journal of Medicine 55:459-472.
Seifert, J. 2004. The philosophical diseases of medicine and their cures: philosophy and ethics of medicine, vol. 1: foundations. New York: Springer.
Senn, S. 2007. Statistical issues in drug development, 2nd edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Simon, J.R. 2010. Advertisement for the ontology of medicine. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 31:333-346.
Smart, J.J.C. 1963. Philosophy and scientific realism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Smuts, J. 1926. Holism and evolution. New York: Macmillan.
Solomon, M.J., and McLeod, R.S. 1998. Surgery and the randomized controlled trial: past, present and future.Medical Journal of Australia 169:380-383.
Spodick, D.H. 1982. The controlled clinical trial: medicine’s most powerful tool. The Humanist 42:12-21, 48.
Stempsey, W.E. 2000. Disease and diagnosis: value-dependent realism. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Stempsey, W.E. 2004. The philosophy of medicine: development of a discipline. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 7:243-251.
Stempsey, W.E. 2008. Philosophy of medicine is what philosophers of medicine do. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 51:379-371.
Stewart, M., Brown, J.B., Weston, W.W., McWhinney, I.R., McWilliam, C.L., and Freeman, T.R. 2003. Patient-centered medicine: transforming the clinical method, 2nd edition. Oxon, UK: Radcliffe Medical Press.
Straus, S.E., and McAlister, F.A. 2000. Evidence-based medicine: a commentary on common criticisms.Canadian Medical Association Journal 163:837-840.
Svenaeus, F. 2000. The hermeneutics of medicine and the phenomenology of health: steps towards a philosophy of medical practice. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Tallis, R.C. 2006. Doctors in society: medical professionalism in a changing world. Clinical Medicine 6:7-12.
Tauber, A.I. 1999. Confessions of a medicine man: an essay in popular philosophy. Cambridge: MIT Press
Tauber, A.I. 2005. Patient autonomy and the ethics of responsibility. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Thagard, P. 1999. How scientists explain disease. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Tonelli, M.R. 1998. The philosophical limits of evidence-based medicine. Academic Medicine 73:1234-1240.
Tong, R. 2007. New perspectives in health care ethics: an interdisciplinary and crosscultural approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Toombs, S.K. 1993. The meaning of illness: a phenomenological account of the different perspectives of physician and patient. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Toombs, S. K., ed. 2001. Handbook of phenomenology and medicine. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Unschuld, P.U. 2010. Medicine in China: a history of ideas, 2nd edition. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
van der Steen, W.J., and Thung, P.J. 1988. Faces of medicine: a philosophical study. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
van Gijn, J. 2005. From randomized trials to rational practice. Cardiovascular Diseases 19:69 - 76.
Veatch, R.M. 1981. A theory of medical ethics. New York: Basic Books.
Veatch, R.M. 1991. The patient-physician relations: the patient as partner, part 2. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Velanovich, V. 1994. Does philosophy of medicine exist? A commentary on Caplan. Theoretical Medicine 15:88-91.
Weatherall, D. 1996. Science and the quiet art: the role of medical research in health care. New York: Norton.
Westen, D., and Weinberger, J. 2005. In praise of clinical judgment: Meehl’s forgotten legacy. Journal of Clinical Psychology 61:1257-1276.
Whitbeck, C. 1981. A theory of health. In Concepts of health and disease: interdisciplinary perspectives, A.L. Caplan, H.T. Engelhardt, Jr., and J.J. McCartney, eds. London: Addison - Wesley, pp. 611-626.
Wildes, K.W. 2001. The crisis of medicine: philosophy and the social construction of medicine. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 11:71-86.
Woodward, J. 2003. Making things happen: a theory of causal explanation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Worrall, J. 2002. What evidence in evidence-based medicine? Philosophy of Science 69:S316 - S330.
Worrall, J. 2007. Why there’s no cause to randomize. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 58:451-488.
Wulff, H.R., Pedesen, S.A., and Rosenberg, R. 1990. Philosophy of medicine: an introduction, 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell.
Zaner, R.M. 1981. The context of self: a phenomenological inquiry using medicine as a clue. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press.
Mill, John Stuart. Utilitarianism (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishers, 1979), originally published 1861.
Singer, Peter. Practical Ethics, 2/e (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
Warren, Mary Anne. Moral Status: Obligations to Persons and Other Living Things (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).
Williams, Meredith. "Rights, Interests, and Moral Equality", Environmental Ethics 2 (1980): 149-61.
https://www.cambridge.org/.../moral_theory_and_medical_p...
https://philpapers.org/rec/FULMTA-3
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medicine/ - (Philosophy of Medicine in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
The Philosophy of Psychiatry: A Companion
https://books.google.com.ua/books?isbn=0195313275
Medicine, Philosophy of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
www.iep.utm.edu/medicine
The philosophy of medicine - NCBI - NIH
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2871211
Philosophy of Medicine & Psychiatry - King's College London
https://www.kcl.ac.uk/.../philosophy-of-medicine-and-psychi...
https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780444517876/philosophy-of-medicine — (Philosophy of Medicine at ScienceDirect)
https://www.iep.utm.edu/medicine/ — Philosophy of Medicine at IEP (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
https://mh.bmj.com/content/29/2/87 -(P.Louhiala Philosophy for medical students—why, what, and how )

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Schweitzer, Albert, (translated by Naish, John), Civilization and Ethics: the Philosophy of Civilization Part II, (London: A & C Black Ltd, 1923).
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Singer, Peter, Practical Ethics, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 1993).
Taylor, Paul W., Respect for Nature: A Theory of Environmental Ethics, (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986).
Varner, Gary E., In Nature’s Interests? Interests, Animal Rights, and Environmental Ethics, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
Woodward, James, “The Non-Identity Problem”, Ethics, 96 (July, 1986): 804-831.
Zimmerman, Michael E.; Callicott, J. Baird; Sessions, George; Warren, Karen J.; and Clark, John (eds.),Environmental Philosophy: From Animal Rights to Radical Ecology, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2nd ed., 1998).

Content
Foreword…………………………………..……....................…...3
Part 1. Human World Outlook and General Problems of Philosophy 5
Part 2. Ancient World Philosophy…………….…………..…...….11
Part 3. Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy …………..….…....…28
Part 4. European Philosophy of XVII-XIX Century………….…35
Part 5. Modern Philosophy …………………..…….……....……71
Part 6. History of Philosophy of Ukraine …………………..…..89
Part 7. Ontology ………………………………..…..……..........102
Part 8. Philosophical Anthropology and Problems of Human Conscience …………………………….………………...….…....…..118
Part 9. Gnoseology ………………….……………….…………130
Part 10. Philosophical Aspects of Methodology ………………137
Part 11. Social Philosophy …………………………..……....…144
Part 12. Philosophy of Medicine ……………………..……..…157
A Guide to Philosophical Terms ……………………………....169
Guidelines for Seminars……………………………………....180
Content …………………………………..……........................205

Навчальне видання

Васильєва Ірина Васильєвна
Верменко Анатолій Юрійович

Філософія та загальна філософія медицини: Навчальний посібник (англійською мовою)